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COURSE  OF  STUDY 


FOR  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


AND 


JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


OF 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


1918 


Prepared  by  ,  ^  , 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  ^ 

And  iMued  by 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOLS 
M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent 
Charleston 


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A  MANUAL  r:ov  7  i9;s 


CONTAINING 


I 

The  Graded  Course  of  Study 


FOR  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Including  Grades  1-6 


AND  FOR  THE 


JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Including  7th,  8th  and  9th  Grapes 

STATE  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA 


EDITION  OF  1918 


Prepared  by 

THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 
And  issued  by 
THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  FREE  S/JHOOLS 
M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent 
Charleston 


1  Jr  1 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCvfTION: 

I 

M.  P.  Shawkey,  President,  Charleston. 
J.  N.  Deahl,  Morgantown.  / 

Walter  Barnes,  Fairmont.  I 
C.  L.  Wright,  Huntington.  | 

Thos.  W.  Haught,  Buckhannon. 
Wilford  McCutcheon,  Matoaka. 

J.  F.  Marsh,  Secretary,  Charleston. 


TRIBUNE  PRINTINQ  CO.,  CHARLESTON,  W.  VA. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


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V 

or- 

v! 


In  1908”the  State  Legislature  passed  an  act  creating  a  State  Board  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  One  of  the  duties  of  this  Board  is  to  prepare  and  publish  a  State  Course  of 
Study  for  Elementary  and  High  Schools.  In  compliance  with  this  statute  the 
Board  prepared  and  issued  in  1909  a  Manual  of  the  courses  of  study  for  both 
elementary  and  high  schools  in  a  single  volume.  In  1912  the  Board  revised  the 
courses  of  study  for  both  elementary  and  high  schools,  but  issued  separate  manuals 
for  these  two  kinds  of  schools.Another  revised  edition  was  issued  in  1914;  a  brief 
revised  manual  in  1917;  and,  this  will  be  known  as  the  edition  of  1918. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  of  references  this  manual  is  divided  into  three 
sections.  Section  I  contains  several  special  articles  written  by  individual  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Board  and  the  Daily  Program  of  Studies.  Section  II  contains  an 
Outline  of  Studies  by  grades,  indicating  the  text-book  to  be  used,  and  the  amount 
of  each  to  be  completed  each  year,  or  half-year.  Section  III  contains  a  detailed 
outline  of  studies  by  subjects.  For  immediate  reference  Sibction  II  will  be  suffi¬ 
cient;  but  questions  as  to  how  to  teach  any  given  subject,  and  just  what  to 
teach,  will  be  answered  in  Section  III.  Throughout  Section  II  references  are 
frequently  made  to  Section  III.  Teachers  are  urged  to  study  Section  III  as  a 
text  on  pedagogy;  for  in  this  section  most  of  the  questions  that  confront  the 
teacher  in  her  daily  class  work  are  answered.  Many  of  the  examination  questions 
for  renewal  of  teachers’  certificates  and  some  of  the  questions  on  Theory  and  Art 
in  the  State  Uniform  Examinations  will  be  taken  from  this  manual. 

I 

In  preparing  this  manual,  the  State  Board  of  Education  purposely  departed 
from  the  usual  practice  by  basing  the  material  on  what  is  known  as  the  Six-three- 
three  Plan  which  is  fully  explained  in  a  special  article  (p  7).  Teachers  should 
welcome  an  opportunity  to  give  an  honest  trial  to  a  new  method  of  organizing 
school  work  based  upon  child  nature  and  social  needs,  and  successfully  tested  in 
some  of  the  best  schools  of  the  country. 

In  applying  the  new  scheme  of  organization  and  the  recommendations  con¬ 
cerning  supervised  study  (p.  8),  and  in  following  the  detail  suggestions  which 
have  been  brought  up  to  date,  teachers  will  find  an  opportunity  to  advance 
the  professional  standing  of  themselves  and  our  schools. 


SECTION  1 


Special  Articles  and  Daily  Program  of 

Studies 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/manualcontaining00west_3 


THE  SIX-THREE-THREE  PLAN. 


For  several  years  students  of  our  educational  system  have  been  convinced  that 
the  present  organization  of  our  schools  is  faulty  in  one  or  two  very  important 
respects.  It  has  become  increasingly  evident  that  the  elementary  school,  con¬ 
sisting  of  eight  grades,  was  failing  to  fit  in  well. with  the  high  school,  consisting 
of  two,  three  or  four  years  above  the  elementary  school.  Pupils  were  leaving 
the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  in  large  numbers;  and  even  if  they 
completed  the  lower  school,  they  often  did  not  care  to  enter  the  high  school. 
Investigations  proved  that  this  was  usually  because  the  pupils  were  not  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  work  of  the  upper  grades  and  because  the  organization  and  discipline 
of  the  upper  grades  did  not  accord  with  the  nature  and  temperament  of  the 
pupils. 

In  the  endeavor  to  find  a  remedy  for  this  unsatisfactory  situation,  educators 
conceived  and  planned  a  re-organization  of  the  parts  of  the  school  system.  The 
new  plan  is  to  have  an  elementary  school  of  only  six  years  instead  of  eight,  a 
junior  high  school  of  three  years,  and  a  senior  high  school  of  three  years.  This 
is  known  as  the  “six-three-three”  plan.  It  has  been  in  operation  in  some  states 
for  a  number  of  years,  it  has  been  tried  out  in  many  cities  in  West  Virginia,  and 
it  has  demonstrated  its  superiority  to  the  older  plan. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  of  West  Virginia  has  thought  it  highly  desirable 
to  introduce  this  new  organization,  modified  to  meet  our  needs,  into  the  schools 
of  the  state.  It  is  not  proposed  to  alter,  suddenly  and  completely,  the  present 
system,  but  to  modify  it  gradually  and  allow  it  to  introduce  itself  and  justify 
itself.  Certain  weaknesses  and  lacks  in  adjustment  are  sure  to  result  in  chang¬ 
ing  from  the  present  plan  to  the  new  one,  and  these  must  work  themselves  out 
gradually  with  as  little  friction  and  inconveniences  as  possible.  These  faults 
will  disappear  if  teachers  will  reserve  judgment  and  will  work  patiently  to  fit  the 
new  system  in  with  the  old. 

One-room  schools  will  find  it  most  difficult  to  adopt  the  new  system.  The 
Board  of  Education  recommends  that  one-room  schools  adopt  the  six-year 
elementary  course  and  at  least  the  first  two  years  of  the  junior  high  school  course. 
This  will  not  entail  any  more  work  than  is  done  at  present.  For  the  present 
diplomas  will  be  awarded  to  pupils  finishing  this  amount  of  work.  Whenever  it 
is  possible,  however,  even  the  one-room  school  should  add  the  last  year  of  the 
junior  high  school.  This  can  be  done  where  the  pupils  are  few  and  some  of  the 
lower  and  intermediate  grades  unrepresented.  Of  course,  this  will  involve  ad¬ 
vanced  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  most  teachers  will  be  willing  to  work 
hard  to  equip  themselves  for  teaching  the  new  subjects. 

Schools  of  two  or  more  rooms  are  expected  to  start  in  the  new  plan  as  soon 
as  possible,  and,  whenever  it  is  desirable  one-room  schools  should  be  consolidated 
that  the  new  plan  may  be  inaugurated.  Village  and  town  schools  which  already 
have  a  high  school  will  have  no  difficulty  in  reorganizing  their  system  to  conform 
to  the  six-three-three  plan. 

According  to  the  new  plan,  the  elementary  schools  will  aim  to  complete  in 
six  years  the  fundamental  elementary  subject  matter.  By  the  end  of  this  period 
the  pupils  should  have  gained  possession  of  the  tools  of  knowledge,  such  as  ability 


8 


to  read  well,  to  do  necessary  arithmetical  calculations,  to  wTite,  spell,  speak; 
and  such  fundamental  knowledge  as  the  essentials  in  Geography,  History  and 
Hygiene.  This  means  that  all  non-essentials  must  be  eliminated  from  the  course 
of  study,  and  that  by  economical  methods  of  teaching,  the  ground-work  of  a 
schooling  shall- be  laid  down. 

The  junior  high  school  will  not  at  present  introduce  any  new  subjects  except 
whenever  possible  Domestic  Science  and  Manual  Training,  and  whenever  possible 
such  subjects  as  are  usually  included  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  as  at 
present  organized.  The  discipline  of  the  junior  high  school  should  be  freer  than 
that  in  the  elementary  school  and  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  test  themselves 
out  in  different  subjects  to  discover  what  their  talents  and  capacities  are.  The 
senior  high  school  ^^ill  not  differ  materially  from  the  last  three  years  of  the  high 
school  as  at  present  organized.  The  three  departments  of  the  school  should  be 
kept  as  distinct  as  possible. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY. 

Most  teachers  accept  the  theory  that  “telling”  is  a  very  poor  general  method  of 
teaching,  and  that  much  time  is  wasted  by  having  pupils  report,  in  the  ordinary 
recitation,  what  they  already  know.  Furthermore,  most  teachers  readily  agree 
that  sound  learning  is  secured  at  the  most  satisfactory  rate  by  pupils  at  interesting 
study  or  work.  Supervised  study  is  intended  to  help  the  pupil  avoid  waste  in 
time  and  effort  by  pointing  out  the  way  to  interesting,  profitable  schoolroom 
work,  and  to  aid  them  to  do  the  work  so  that  a  maximum  of  learning  is  accom¬ 
plished  by  each  student  during  the  school  day.  The  following  paragraphs  are 
intended  to  show  how  such  a  result  may  be  obtained  through  what  is  called 
“Supeivdsed  Study.” 

A  teacher  of  a  small  one-room  school  has  set  aside  twenty  minutes  for  the 
upper  grade  arithmetic  class  consisting  of  five  pupils.  She  calls  the  class  and 
by  questioning  learns  that  the  problems  assigned  have  been  solved.  She  may 
spend  about  eight  minutes  in  having  each  student  tell  clearly  how  one  of  the 
problems  should  be  solved  in  order  to  test  the  pupil’s  understanding  and  method, 
or  may  use  that  time  in  having  one  student  under  the  direction  and  inspection 
of  the  others  solve  a  problem  that  has  an  important  principle  or  difficult  point. 
This  eight  minutes  may  be  considered  the  recitation  or  testing  part  of  the 
class  period.  Then  the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson  should  be  made  in  a  way 
to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  class  and  to  show  them  how  to  go  about  mastering 
the  lesson.  This  assignment  which  should  insure  profitable  study  of  the  lesson 
may  require  about  four  minutes.  At  this  point  the  class  may  remain  in  recita¬ 
tion  seats,  go  to  the  blackboard,  or  return  to  their  own  seats  for  eight  minutes 
of  intensive  study  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  will  offer 
help  on  request  of  a  member  of  the  class  and  go  quietly  from  pupil  to  pupil,  not 
depriving  them  of  work  by  unnecessary  help,  but  giving  suggestions  that  will  aid 
the  pupils  in  working  out  the  lesson  assigned.  One  or  more  backward  pupils  in 
this  subject  may  need  much  special  assistance.  After  eight  minutes  of  this  inten¬ 
sive  supervised  study  the  recitation  period  will  close. 

Now,  we  may  think  of  a  high  school  class  in  history  consisting  of  twenty-five 
pupils  in  a  standard  recitation  room  with  a  special  teacher  in  charge.  The  recita¬ 
tion  period,  instead  of  being  forty  or  forty-five  minutes  in  length  has  been  ex¬ 
tended  to  sixty  or  sixty-five  minutes.  By  expanding  the  process  explained  in  the 
last  paragraph  the  teacher  may  use  about  twenty  minutes  in  testing  the  pupil’s 


9 


preparation  of  the  lesson.  Many  of  the  testing  questions  should  require  the 
pupil  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  the  lesson  to  situations  differing  from  the  routine 
of  the  textbook.  Oftentimes  the  testing  may  be  in  the  form  of  extended  oral 
reports.  Then,  the  next  or  new  lesson  will  be  taken  up  by  giving  five  to  eight 
minutes  for  the  assignment  which,  as  stated  above,  will  include  reference  to 
its  relation  to  the  lessons  completed  and  the  directing  of  attention  to  new  facts 
or  principles  it  contains  with  suggestions  as  to  how  the  difficult  parts  can  be 
mastered  most  easily.  It  will  now  be  seen  that  about  thirty  minutes  of  the  period 
remains  for  the  study  of  the  new  lesson  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  During 
this  silent  study-period,  “it  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  go  among  the 
pupils,  directing  those  who  need  further  explanations  and  noting  the  acumen  of 
each  pupil.  In  this  way  the  pupil’s  progress  can  be  measured  just  as  well  as 
during  the  customary  recitation  period.”  If  the  new  lesson  is  not  well  learned  at 
the  end  of  this  period,  the  pupils  should,  at  least,  be  well  on  the  way  to  com¬ 
pleting  the  work  assigned. 

In  a  well  organized  high  school  with  a  sufficient  number  of  trained  teachers, 
the  class-period  may  be  lengthened  to  eighty  or  ninety  minutes  and  the  time 
given  to  “supervised  study”  lengthened  accordingly.  Under  this  plan  the  school 
day  should  be  lengthened  and  home  study  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

Alfred  L.  Hall-Quest  who  has  made  a  thorough  study  of  this  subject,  sets  forth 
the  following  cautions  for  those  introducing  supervised  study: 

1.  Before  undertaking  this  form  of  school  organization  and  procedure,  study 
carefully  the  meaning  and  the  typical  methods  of  supervised  study.  Consider 
fully  the  changes  and  their  probable  effects  upon  the  pupils,  the  teachers,  and 
patrons. 

2.  Experiment  first  with  one  or  two  subjects.  Adapt  the  new  plan  to  local 
conditions. 

3.  Plan  to  lengthen  the  school  day  and  to  reduce  the  amount  of  home  study. 

4.  Principals  and  teachers  undertaking  this  work  should  know  the  psychology 
and  the  underlying  principles  of  method  as  applied  to  each  subject  to  be  taught 
by  the  supervised  study  plan.  (Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects  by 
C.  H.  Judd,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago,  and  the  Psychology  of  the  Common 
Branches  by  F.  N.  Freeman,  are  recommended  for  such  study.) 

The  State  Board  of  Education  recommends  the  introduction  of  Supervised 
Study  in  the  junior  high  schools  and  regular  high  schools  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  It  will  require  teachers  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  best  methods  of 
teaching  their  special  subjects.  At  present  many  high  school  teachers  are  drearily 
following  very  poor  methods  of  college  and  university  teachers. 

2.  The  plan  will  do  away  with  the  study-hall  plan  that  requires  teachers  to 
spend  much  time  in  “bossing”  a  room  full  and  to  attempt  to  give  help  in  many 
subjects  about  which  they  are  poorly  informed. 

3.  It  affords  help  to  the  pupils  when  they  are  helping  themselves,  and  assists 
them  to  overcome  obstacles  at  once  that  might  otherwise  cause  much  delay  in 
their  progress. 

4.  Supervised  study  should  lengthen  the  school  day  and  thus  afford  added 
opportunity  for  the  school  to  aid  and  require  pupils  to  complete  the  school  course 
in  a  thorough  way. 

5.  It  will  reduce  the  number  of  failures,  make  the  teacher  a  co-operator  with 
pupils  and  not  a  lecturer  and  dictator,  and  tend  to  make  the  school  a  social  group 
working  hard  and  effectively  upon  worth-while  and  definitely  stated  questions 
and  problems. 


10 


The  books  listed  below  are  recommended  to  those  interested  in  this  subject; 

Supervised  Study — ^Hall-Quest,  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 

The  Art  of  Study — Hinsdale,  The  American  Book  Co.,  New  York. 

How  to  Study — McMurry,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York. 

Teaching  Children  to  Study — Earhart,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York. 

How  to  Study  Effectively — ^Whipple. 

How  to  Train  Pupils  to  Study — ^Wilson. 

MEASURING  SCHOOL  PRODUCTS. 

In  recent  years  the  improvement  in  school  education  has  been  considerable. 
Much  of  this  improvement,  if  not  most  of  it,  has  been  due  to  what  is  called 
measuring  school  products  by  teachers,  principals,  superintendents  and  others 
who  are  studying  the  school  problems.  This  measuring  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  learning  done  by  pupils  consists  in  making  use  of  the  scientific  method 
of  procedure  instead  of  mere  opinion  as  a  guide.  Experiment  takes  the  place  of 
guessing  at  the  progress  and  attainments  of  pupils. 

Teachers  who  have  the  courage  and  the  industry  to  try  experimental  measur¬ 
ing  of  their  pupils’  work  will  find  it  one  of  the  most  effective  ways  to  improve 
themselves  as  well  as  their  schools.  It  has  had  this  effect  where  it  has  been  tried. 

There  are  at  least  two  books  on  the  market  that  give  in  simple  manner  the 
tests  that  have  been  worked  out  and  some  directions  for  using  them.  Tests  have 
not  yet  been  prepared  for  all  subjects,  but  most  of  the  elementary  subjects  have 
been  quite  well  done.  These  two  books  are: 

Starch — Educational  Measurements.  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Chapman  and  Rush — Scientific  Measurements  of  Schoolroom  Products. 
Silver  Burdett  &  Co. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  EQUIPMENT. 

We  are  familiar  with  the  multiplication  of  man’s  powers  through  the  aids  of 
machinery;  also,  with  the  special  advantages  added  through  high  grade  machinery 
or  tools.  While  the  cases  are  not  entirely  similar,  the  school  equipment  to  the 
teacher  is  much  as  the  tools  to  the  worker.  Communities  should  gladly  furnish 
proper  equipment  so  as  to  get  the  most  service  from  the  teachers  employed, 
but,  if  the  equipment  is  not  furnished,  the  teacher  should  try  to  secure  it  in 
order  to  insure  her  own  full  success  which  means  her  own  full  happiness. 

School  house  and  out-buildings  in  good  repair,  provision  for  pure  drinking 
water,  suitable  desks  for  pupils,  a  desk  and  chair  for  the  teacher,  a  good  stove 
and  plenty  of  fuel,  brooms,  chalk,  and  erasers,  clean  floor  and  walls — these 
conditions  and  materials  should  be  found  at  every  school  house  at  the  opening 
of  school.  If  any  of  these  minimum  essentials  are  lacking,  the  teacher  should 
courteously  and  insistently  urge  the  trustees  or  board  of  education  to  make  good 
the  deficiency. 

The  library  should  be  a  part  of  every  school’s  equipment.  At  first,  it  should 
consist  of  the  most  usable  books — handy  volumes  of  good  literature  used  as 
supplementary  readers,  books  of  historical  and  geographical  references,  a  dic¬ 
tionary,  and  at  least  one  book  of  general  information,  even  if  it  cannot  be  more 
than  the  World  Almanac.  Later,  books  of  more  general  reading  can  be  added. 
A  standard  one-room  school  should  have  at  least  100  volumes  in  its  library. 


11 


A  lot  of  money  has  been  wasted  by  teachers  who  did  not  know  what  books  to 
buy.  If  teachers  will  follow  suggestions  in  the  Library  Day  Annual,  prepared 
by  the  Department  of  Schools,  they  will  save  money  and  secure  better  books. 
Boards  of  education  may  use  public  money  to  assist  in  the  purchase  of  library 
books  that  are  chosen  from  the  official  state  list.  It  is  of  small  worth  to  buy 
books  unless  they  can  be  kept  in  a  case.  This  case  need  not  be  expensive.  In 
nearly  every  school  may  be  found  one  or  more  boys  who  will  gladly  make  a 
library  case,  or  a  neighborhood  carpenter  who  will  make  a  case  at  small  cost. 
Teachers  are  urged  to  keep  the  library  in  first  class  condition,  and  to  make  care¬ 
ful  record  of  all  books  taken  out.  The  proper  care  and  use  of  a  library  are  better 
tests  of  a  teacher  than  is  the  securing  of  the  books. 

There  should  be  several  wall  maps,  a  globe  and  a  primary  reading  chart  (ap¬ 
proved  by  good  authority).  Boards  of  education  can  easily  be  persuaded  to 
supply  these  and  help  supply  a  library  if  the  matter  is  brought  to  their  attention 
in  the  right  way. 

Much  valuable  equipment  can  be  made  or  furnished  by  the  teacher,  pupils, 
and  patrons.  Any  school  ought  to  be  able  to  make  a  neat,  strong  box,  say  4  ft. 
by  23^  ft.,  4  in.  deep,  and  fill  it  with  clean  sand.  That  is  a  sand  table  to  make 
happy  the  little  folks,  and  to  aid  in  the  teaching  of  geography,  nature  study, 
agriculture,  history  and  reading.  A  dictionary  stand,  a  table  for  papers  and 
magazines,  wall  holders  for  lamps,  dividers  for  making  circles  and  parallel  lines 
on  blackboard,  necessary  shelves,  pointers,  rulers,  and  much  simple  busy  work 
material  can  be  made  by  the  school  or  by  persons  who  are  glad  to  help  a  tactful 
teacher. 

These  are  but  a  few  suggestions  that  might  be  made.  The  finer  work  of  the 
school  can  be  done  by  means  of  equipment  not  usually  furnished  by  boards  of 
education.  It  will  all  depend  upon  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  teacher.  Visit 
some  good  local  book  or  school  supply  store  or  secure  a  catalogue  of  one  of  our 
leading  state  book  stores  for  suggestions.  The  catalogue  of  A.  Flanagan  Com¬ 
pany,  Chicago;  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  Philadelphia;  Dodson  Evans  Co.,  Colum¬ 
bus,  O.;  Virginia  School  Supply  Co.,  Richmond,  Va.,  and  others  will  be  suggestive 
to  teachers,  since  they  make  a  specialty  of  such  equipment.  Any  good  book  on 
methods  of  teaching  will  aid  the  teacher.  The  time  has  come  when  merely  assign¬ 
ing  lessons  and  hearing  recitations  out  of  books  will  not  do.  Such  methods  have 
never  done  well.  The  modern  school  room  should  be  somewhat  like  a  well  ordered 
shop  or  laboratory. 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOL. 

Any  good  observer  can  testify  that  “adaptation  to  environment”  is  the  great 
law  of  nature.  Plants  and  animals  in  many  ways  suit  themselves  to  the  food,  the 
climate,  and  even  the  color  of  their  environment.  The  child,  too,  will  carry 
through  life  the  impress  of  its  surroundings.  The  silent  influences  of  school 
surroundings  pouring  in  upon  the  receptive  natures  of  pupils  during  their  5,000 
to  8,000  hours  of  school  room  life  may  out-teach  the  teachers  for  good  or  for 
evil.  The  well  understood  importance  of  proper  school  environment  should  spur 
every  good  teacher  to  determined  efforts  to  make  school  property  as  nearly  ideal 
as  possible. 

The  Walls.  An  uncoated,  plastered  wall  is  not  only  an  ugly  and  unattractive 
thing  to  look  at,  but  it  is  also  an  actual  source  of  injury  to  the  eye.  Practically 
nowhere  in  nature,  do  we  find  such  an  environment  facing  us.  Physicians  are 


12 


of  the  opinion  that  a  strong  glare  on  the  eye  for  a  long  time  is  a  source  of  serious 
eye  strain,  with  accompanying  nervousness  and  restlessness.  In  our  homes  we 
usually  strive  to  cover  the  plastered  wall  with  some  appropriate  color. 

Teachers  should  know  how  to  select  colors  for  a  schoolroom  wall  so  as  to  be 
able  to  advise  boards  of  education  or  to  select  paints  purchased  by  the  efforts  of 
the  school.  For  the  plastered  wall  tinted  preparations  of  the  nature  of  the  one  in 
common  use,  called  Alabastine,  are  not  expensive,  are  quite  durable,  and  come  in 
an  excellent  range  and  variety  of  shades.  For  the  wood  it  is  better  to  use  some  of 
the  so-called  “flat”  interior  paints,  that  is,  paints  with  a  dull  rather  than  a  gloss 
surface.  These  are  more  expensive  than  the  washes,  such  as  the  Alabastine,  but 
they  have  the  advantage  that  when  they  become  soiled  they  can  be  sponged  off 
and  cleansed.  We  should  avoid  such  colors  as  yellow,  orange  and  red.  The 
greens,  of  which  there  is  a  wonderful  range  of  tints,  are  both  artistic,  and  soothing 
to  the  eye.  Through  countless  ages  our  eyes  have  been  getting  accustomed  to 
the  various  shades  of  green  in  the  vegetation  that  surrounds  us  out  of  doors. 
Some  buffs  and  light  browns  and  some  light  shades  of  blue  may  do  for  certain 
rooms.  Suggestions  for  color  schemes  will  be  found  in  the  cards  and  other  adver¬ 
tising  matter  issued  by  paint  manufacturers,  but  where  the  teacher,  with  what¬ 
ever  assistance  can  be  secured,  undertakes  to  put  on  a  coat  of  paint  or  other 
coating  a  single  tint  properly  selected  will  do  very  well. 

Miscellaneous  Decorations. 

While  pictures  will  make  up  the  chief  decoration  of  a  school-room,  teachers 
should  note  the  possibilities  of  other  materials  that  help  to  determine  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  school-room. 

Curtains  and  Blinds.  Under  the  leadership  of  a  wide-awake  teacher, 
especially  a  lady  teacher,  the  women  of  the  neighborhood  or  the  older  school 
girls  will  make  neat,  light  curtains  for  the  lower  part  of  the  windows.  These 
should  be  pushed  back  on  dark  days.  Once  secured,  the  curtains  must  be  kept 
clean  and  in  order  or  they  add  dirt  and  ugliness.  The  blinds  of  many  school¬ 
rooms  are  half  torn  from  the  rollers.  Why  will  teachers  not  show  their  thriftiness 
and  good  taste  by  fixing  these? 

Flags  and  Banners.  A  bright,  clean  flag  or  banner  of  medium  size,  well 
displayed,  adds  an  attractive  touch  to  a  school-room.  Good  housekeeping  and 
proper  respect  for  the  flag  should  cause  all  old,  dusty  flags,  banners,  and  bunting 
to  be  removed.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  use  flags,  not  as  permanent  decoration, 
but  for  special  occasions. 

Casts.  Schools  well  enough  developed  to  be  ambitious  to  add  special  signs  of 
art  appreciation  and  culture,  should  try  to  secure  some  casts — copies  of  famous 
sculptures  or  busts  of  persons  of  historical  or  literary  fame.  P.  P.  Caproni  & 
Bro.,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  The  G.  Hennecke  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  issue  catalogues 
giving  full  particulars  about  casts  for  schools. 

Flowers.  The  great  variety  of  flowers,  evergreens,  decorative  berries,  and 
autumn  leaves  makes  it  possible  for  a  teacher  to  add,  at  all  seasons,  a  bit  of  cheer 
by  the  artistic  use  of  some  of  these.  Flowers  speak  a  fine  message  to  a  school. 

Pictures.  The  first  step  in  decoration  will  often  be  the  removal  of  cheap, 
gaudy,  unframed  pictures  put  up  with  unsightly  tacks  or  nails,  and  odd  calendars, 
shoe  and  coffin  advertisements,  dirty  bunting  or  banners,  cobwebs,  and  plain  dirt. 

A  Few  Good  Pictures.  It  does  not  require  many  pictures  to  decorate  a 
schoolroom,  one  good  one  being  better  than  a  dozen  very  cheap  ones.  However, 


13 


any  school  ought  to  be  able  to  secure  three  or  four  good-sized,  well-framed  pic¬ 
tures.  In  addition  to  the  few  permanent,  larger  pictures  here  referred  to,  groups 
of  small  pictures  can  be  placed,  from  time  to  time,  in  appropriate  wall  space. 
Do  not  show  bad  taste  by  “sticking  up  ”  in  your  schoolroom  every  “pretty 
picture”  that  you  find.  Interesting  pictures  from  papers  and  magazines  can  be 
placed  on  the  school  bulletin  board  for  pupils  to  examine  or  as  a  basis  of  some 
school  work. 

Picture  Frames.  A  picture  frame  should  be  a  modest,  harmonizing,  durable 
border  to  help  show  the  picture  to  best  advantage.  A  gaudy  frame  or  one  not  in 
harmony  with  the  color  scheme  of  the  picture  advertises  itself  and  the  poor  taste 
of  the  teacher  and  detracts  from  the  picture  itself.  Skillful  teachers  can  frame 
pictures  of  medium  size  with  black  or  green  passepartout  which  can  be 
secured  for  a  few  cents  at  a  drug  store  or  school  supply  store.  If  pictures  the  size 
of  small  window  panes  are  purchased,  the  glass  problem  becomes  simple.  A 
school  of  several  rooms  where  a  work  shop  is  maintained  can  well  afford  a  mitre 
machine  for  making  joints  for  picture  frames  and  other  manual  training  projects. 
Some  schools  have  paid  for  such  a  machine  ($10.00  or  $12.00)  by  framing  pictures 
for  patrons. 

Proper  Arrangement  of  Pictures.  Give  a  picture  a  chance  by  placing  it 
where  it  will  be  seen  to  best  advantage — a  large  picture  in  a  large  space,  a  narrow 
picture  in  a  narrow  space  between  windows,  or  at  the  side  and  a  little  above  or 
below  a  similar  picture  to  fill  a  larger  space,  small  pictures  in  groups  that  can  be 
changed.  Make  hangings — ^wire,  strings,  nails,  tacks — as  inconspicuous  as 
possible.  Send  for  a  few  cents  worth  of  special  tacks  for  suspending  pictures. 
Do  not  place  pictures  very  high  on  the  walls  or  in  a  straight  row  around  the 
rooms.  Seek  to  give  the  schoolroom  a  cozy,  homelike  appearance. 

Selection  of  Pictures.  Too  many  teachers  make  their  first  choices  for  school¬ 
room  pictures  from  the  presidents,  vice  presidents,  and  candidates.  It  is  well  to 
hold  up  a  high  ideal  through  good  pictures  of  Washington  and  Lincoln,  but 
it  is  not  best  to  have  too  many  faces  looking  down  upon  children  day  after  day 
when  there  is  a  hunger  and  a  need  for  a  variety  of  scenes  that  make  special  ap¬ 
peals  to  children.  Choose  pictures  from  the  masters.  Remember  pupils  of 
different  grades  and  interests.  (See  list  below).  Ask  questions  to  bring  out  the 
pupils’  notions  of  the  picture  and  let  them  hold  to  some  of  their  own  impressions. 
Tell  the  story  of  the  picture  and  the  artist.  The  list  which  follows  is  intended  as 
a  suggestion,  and  should  not  be  followed  rigidly.  Some  teachers  allow  pupils 
to  express  preferences  from  catalogues.  Any  wide-awake  teacher  teaching 
any  place  in  West  Virginia  can  secure  some  good  pictures  for  the  schoolroom. 
The  suggestive  list  follows: 


First  Grade. 


Baby  Stuart . Van  Dyck 

Can’t  You  Talk . Holmes 

Mother  and  Child . 'Toulmache 

Feeding  Her  Birds . Millet 

Learning  A,  B,  C . Defregger 


A  Fair  Wind.. . Raupp 

Madonna  of  the  Chair . Raphael 

Hiawatha . Norris 

A  Helping  Hand . Renouf 


Second  Grade. 


Brittany  Sheep . Bonheur 

Age  of  Innocence . Reynolds 

Friends  or  Foes . Barber 

Which  Do  You  Like . Holmes 

Children’s  Hour . Taylor 


Mother  and  Daughter . Douglas 

Mother  and  Child . LeBrun 

Christ  Blessing  Little  Children,  Hoffman  &  Plockhorst 
The  First  Steps . Millet 


V. 


14 


Third  Grade 


Three  Members  of  a  Temperance  Society . Herring 

The  Little  Scholar . Bonguereau 

The  Child  Christ . Murillo 

The  Horse  Fair . Bonheur 


The  Old  Monarch . Bonheur 

The  Watering  Place . Gainsborough 

The  Minute  Man . French 


Fourth  Grade. 


Washington,  Portrait. . . .  Rembrandt,  Peale  and  Stuart 

The  Gleaners . Millet 

Horse  Fair . Bonheur 

Call  to  the  Ferryman . .Knight 

Haying  Time . Dupre 


Distinguished  Member  of  Humane  Society. .  .Landseer 


Return  to  the  Farm . Troyou 

The  Boy  Shepherd . Murillo 

Playmates . Merle 


Fifth  Grade. 


Jesus  in  the  Temple . Hoffman 

At  the  Watering  Trough . Dagnan-Bonveret 

Spring . Mauve 

Children  of  the  Sea . Israels 


Whittier’s  Portrait . 

Pilgrims  Going  to  Church . . . Boughton 

Holy  Night . Le  Rolle 

Sistine  Madonna . Raphael 


The  Windmill. . 
Concord  Bridge 
Sir  Ga(ahad. . . . 


Autumn . 

The  Coliseum . 

Reading  from  Homer 

Hope . 

Lincoln,  Portrait . 

The  Haymaker . 


Sixth  Grade. 


Van  Ruysdael 
. Watts 


The  Aurora . 

The  Sower . 

The  Avenue  of  Trees 


Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades. 


Mauve 


Alma-Tadema 
.  .Burne-Jones 


Adan 


The  Shepherdess . 

Angelas . 

Breaking  Home  Ties. 
Washington,  Portrait 
Song  of  the  Lark . 


. Reni 

. . .  Millet 
Gobbema 


....Millet 
....Millet 
Hovenden 
, . . . Stuart 
. .  .Breton 


SANITATION. 

Fight  the  Germs.  Sanitation  is  no  longer  a  fad.  Science  and  experience 
have  demonstrated  that  diseases  can  be  prevented,  that  the  bad  effects  of  disease 
can  be  much  reduced,  and  that  the  health  of  children  can  be  greatly  improved 
through  teaching,  and  strict  compliance  with  well-known  laws  of  health.  It 
seems  appropriate  here  to  quote  two  paragraphs  from  the  former  State  Manual: 

“These  things  are  not  an  idle  dream;  they  are  practical  scientific 
possibilities.  The  adopted  textbooks  in  hygiene,  sanitation  and  physiol¬ 
ogy  give  a  fine  lot  of  information  that  should  be  used  to  this  end;  but 
physiological  knowledge  is  one  of  the  most  useless  kinds  of  knowledge, 
merely  as  knowledge,  just  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  kinds  of 
knowledge  when  applied.  The  teacher  should  have  a  burning  enthusiasm 
for  knowledge  of  this  sort,  should  seek  it  and  acquire  it  from  all  possible 
sources,  and  in  all  cases  should  be  in  her  school  and  in  her  community 
a  tireless  missionary  of  the  great  gospel  of  good  health. 

“The  teacher  should  above  all  things  else  try  to  control  the  health  con¬ 
ditions  of  her  schoolroom.  The  room  should  be  clean  and  every  known 
sanitary  principle  within  her  power  should  be  applied.  For  instance, 
the  best  air  there  is  is  that  out  of  doors,  and  the  one  general  prin¬ 
ciple  of  ventilation  is  to  bring  this  air  in  as  freely  as  is  possible.  Every 
dust  mote  may  be  the  aeroplane  of  a  jolly  party  of  germs,  ambitious 
to  make  explorations  and  settlements  in  some  child’s  nose  or  mouth 
or  lungs.  Therefore,  the  dust  mote  should  reach  the  ground  outside 
otherwise  than  by  flight  through  the  air.  Blackboards  should  be 
cleaned  outside  of  school  hours  in  order  to  reduce  the  danger  from 


15 


chalk  dust.  A  dozen  kinds  of  germs  are  lurking  in  the  common  drinking 
cup,  and  the  weakest,  the  strongest,  or  the  dearest  child  of  the  school 
'  may  be  the  next  object  of  attack  by  a  colony  of  the  most  deadly  germs.” 

It  is  as  much  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  fight  the  enemies  of  the  pupils’  health 
as  it  is  for  our  soldiers  to  fight  the  enemies  of  our  country. 

Enforce  the  Law.  Senate  Bill  No.  129  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  1915 
gives  the  Public  Health  Council  power  to  make  regulations  concerning  sanita¬ 
tion.  The  following  regulations  are  quoted  from  a  bulletin  issued  by  the  Public 
Health  Council  and  have  the  full  force  and  effect  of  law.  Violators  of  any  of  these 
regulations  including  teachers  shall  upon  conviction  be  punished  as  provided 
by  law. 

Water  for  Washing.  Water  and  soap  for  hand  washing  shall  be  provided, 
but  no  common  towel  shall  be  used  in  any  public  school  in  the  State.  Paper 
towels  are  recommended,  but  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  use  their  own  private 
towels. 

Drinking  Water.  Boards  of  education  or  other  school  officers  in  charge  shall 
see  that  their  schools  are  provided  with,  or  have  access  to,  an  abundant  supply 
of  pure  drinking  water.  Buckets  and  all  other  open  water  receptacles  are  for¬ 
bidden,  and  also  the  use  of  the  common  drinking  cup.  Sanitary  drinking  foun¬ 
tains  or  individual  drinking  cups  shall  be  used  exclusively  in  all  schools.  Where 
it  is  necessary  to  use  a  water  receptacle,  a  closed  jar,  tank  or  coolor  with  faucet 
shall  be  provided,  which  shall  be  kept  clean  and  which  shall  have  its  contents 
renewed  at  least  every  morning. 

I  Sweeping  of  Rooms.  No  class  room  shall  be  swept  except  after  all  school 
exercises  for  the  given  day  have  been  concluded,  and  no  floor  of  a  school  room 
shall  be  swept  without  first  having  been  covered  with  damp  sawdust  or  other 
suitable  preparation  for  this  purpose.  All  sweepings  or  waste  shall  be  removed 
from  each  school  room  daily.  The  seats,  desks  and  other  furniture  shall  be 
wiped  down  with  an  oiled  or  paraffined  cloth  every  day  after  the  dust  has  settled, 
and  the  woodwork  or  finishing  of  every  schoolroom  and  of  every  hallway  or 
corridor  shall  be  wiped  down  in  the  same  way  at  least  once  a  week. 

Sanitation  of  School  Buildings  and  Grounds.  The  Public  Health  Coun¬ 
cil  shall,  whenever  it  deems  necessary  or  advisable,  cause  an  investigation  of 
the  sanitary  condition  of  any  school  house,  building  or  ground  used  for  school 
purposes.  If  they  shall  find  that  such  school  house,  building  or  ground  is  in  any 
respect  a  menace,  or  likely  to  become  a  menace,  to  the  health  or  physical  welfare 
of  the  pupils  or  teachers,  they  shall  call  the  attention  of  the  local  Board  of  Health 
to  the  fact;  and  if,  after  a  reasonable  length  of  time  the  complaint  has  not  been 
attended  to  in  a  satisfactory  way,  they  shall  either  order  such  changes  as  in  their 
judgment  will  make  the  building  and  grounds  safe  and  sanitary  for  school  pur¬ 
poses,  or  condemn  the  same  and  forbid  their  further  use. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  School  Board  of  the  district  forthwith  on  notifica¬ 
tion  to  make  the  changes  ordered,  and  the  cost  of  the  same  shall  be  a  charge  upon 
the  district. 

Diseases.  Pupils  actually  infected  with  the  following  named  diseases  shall  be 
excluded  from  school  during  the  existence  of  the  disease,  and  shall  be  readmitted 
only  upon  presenting  a  certificate  from  a  licensed  physician  attesting  to  their 
recovery;  Tonsilitis,  trachoma,  scabies  (itch),  pediculosis  capitis  (head  lice), 
pediculosis  corporis  (body  lice),  tinea  circinata  (ringworm),  impetigo  contagiosa, 
favus.  The  teacher  or  principal  shall  exclude  from  school  any  child  suspected 


16 


to  be  suffering  from  any  communicable  disease,  pending  examination  and  report 
from  a  licensed  physician. 

No  child  who  has  suffered  and  recovered  from  a  communicable  disease,  shall 
be  permitted  to  enter  any  school  except  upon  certificate  of  a  competent  licensed 
physician,  setting  forth  that  all  rules  and  regulations  have  been  complied  with, 
and  that  the  child  presents  no  evidence  of  disease  and  is  incapable  of  conveying 
infection. 

No  person  suffering  from  any  communicable  disease  shall  be  employed  as 
teacher  or  janitor,  or  in  any  capacity  which  brings  him  or  her  in  contact  with 
children  in  any  public  school  in  the  State. 

No  person,  either  as  teacher  or  pupil,  afflicted  or  suspected  to  be  afflicted  with 
trachoma  shall  be  allowed  to  attend  any  public,  parochial  or  private  school  in 
the  State,  and  no  person  excluded  from  school  for  this  cause  shall  be  readmitted 
except  after  having  been  treated  and  relieved  of  any  contagious  disease  of  the 
eyes. 

No  person  shall  be  entered  as  a  teacher,  employee  or  pupil  in  any  school  in 
the  State  without  having  first  presented  to  the  principal  in  charge  or  the  proper 
authority  a  certificate  from  a  competent  licensed  physician  of  this  State,  cer¬ 
tifying  that  the  said  teacher,  employee  or  pupil  has  been  successfully  vaccinated 
against  smallpox;  or  in  lieu  of  a  certificate  of  successful  vaccination,  a  certificate 
certifying  that  a  recent  vaccination  has  been  done  in  a  proper  manner,  or  proof 
of  immunity  by  reason  of  having  had  the  smallpox. 

Teachers  boarding  or  residing  in  a  family  in  which  any  disease  subject  to 
quarantine  is  known  or  suspected  to  exist,  shall  immediately  move  to  premises 
not  so  infected,  and  provided  they  have  not  been  actually  exposed  to  infection, 
may  be  allowed  to  continue  their  attendance  at  school,  provided,  that  in  the 
case  of  smallpox  such  teachers  shall  have  been  successfully  vaccinated  within 
five  years;  and  in  case  of  diphtheria  that  bacteriological  examination  of  the 
discharges  from  the  nose  and  throat  proves  negative,  they  may  be  permitted  to 
resume  their  school  duties. 

GRADING  AND  PROMOTIONS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  carrying  out  instructions  in  this  course  of  study 
will  be  the  grading  of  the  pupils.  And  yet  it  is  a  rather  simple  matter  as  a  general 
proposition.  Its  difficulty  is  found  in  applying  the  general  principle  to  particular 
pupils. 

Suppose  you  have  a  school  that  has  never  been  graded,  or  at  least  has  been  only 
very  poorly  graded.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  determine  what  pupils  should 
be  in  the  first  grade.  Of  course,  all  who  are  just  starting  to  school  for  the  first 
time  will  be  in  that  grade.  Normally  we  would  expect  them  to  be  six  years  of 
age.  But  some  of  them  may  be  seven  or  eight  years  of  age. 

Furthermore,  there  will  likely  be  some  who  have  been  in  school  one  or  two 
years,  but,  because  of  irregular  attendance,  poor  teaching  or  dullness  on  their 
part,  have  not  learned  enough  of  the  first  grade  work  to  do  the  work  of  the  second 
grade.  These  will  also  be  in  the  first  grade.  Once  it  is  determined  what  pupils 
will  do  the  work  of  the  first  year,  you  have  your  first  grade  organized.  Then 
you  go  to  the  course  of  study  and  find  just  what  work  these  pupils  will  do.  Simi¬ 
larly  the  teacher  will  organize  the  pupils  into  classes  of  the  second  grade,  third 
grade,  and  so  on  up  through  the  eight  grades,  if  all  the  grades  are  represented. 


17 


And  by  referring  to  the  course  of  study  the  teacher  can  tell  just  what  work  each 
grade  will  do  and  what  books  they  will  study. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  teacher  in  the  state  will  hereafter  disregard  the  course 
of  study  and  go  on  in  the  old  way  of  trying  to  teach  each  pupil  in  a  class  by  him¬ 
self.  Even  during  the  past  year  teachers  have  been  found  with  as  many  as  a 
dozen  classes  in  arithmetic,  each  pupil  working  by  himself  and  going  as  far  each 
day  as  he  could  work  the  examples  or  solve  the  problems.  Such  individual 
teaching  might  not  be  very  bad  if  properly  done,  but  no  teacher  has  time  to  do 
this.  Some  of  the  pupils  will  be  neglected  and  the  neglect  usually  comes  to  the 
smaller  ones  who  really  need  most  attention. 

Once  the  school  is  graded  the  matter  of  promoting  next  claims  attention. 
Normally  the  first  grade  would  be  promoted  to  the  second  grade  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  the  second  to  the  third  and  so  on  up  to  the  eighth  grade,  who  would  receive 
their  diplomas.  But  it  does  not  always  work  out  so  in  actual  practice.  Some 
pupils  will  do  better  than  others.  The  test  for  promotion  should  always  be 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  If  at  any  time  a  pupil 
can  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade,  he  should  be  promoted.  It  is  not  right 
for  a  teacher  to  depend  upon  formal  examinations  and  tests  as  bases  for  pro¬ 
motions.  Thorough  investigations  show  that  such  tests  are  unreliable.  Class 
records,  try-outs,  and  scientific  measurements  (p.  10)  should  be  used  when 
possible.  This  situation  will  not  often  arise  unless  there  be  pupils  whose  age 
would  normally  place  them  in  a  higher  grade.  In  such  cases  the  pupils  should  ’ 
be  given  a  trial  in  the  grade  of  their  age,  or  the  grade  next  above  the  one  in  which 
they  have  been  placed.  It  may  be  that  a  teacher  will  misjudge  a  pupil’s  ability 
to  do  the  work  of  a  given  grade  and  place  him  in  a  grade  too  high.  This  mis- 
judgment  is  all  the  more  likely  where  poor  records  of  the  pupil’s  work  have  been 
kept,  the  teacher  being  compelled  to  rely  on  the  pupil’s  statement  or  a  brief  oral 
examination.  In  such  case  the  pupil  should,  after  a  fair  trial,  be  placed  in  the 
next  lower  grade. 

The  classification  of  pupils  by  grades  is  a  means  of  economizing  the  time  and 
energy'’  of  the  teacher.  The  chief  reason  why  grading  is  important  in  a  rural 
school  is  that  a  teacher  can  in  fifteen  minutes  teach  a  half  dozen  pupils  more 
and  better  in  a  class  than  if  she  gives  each  of  them  2  minutes  separately.  And 
since  the  rural  teacher  has  from  six  to  eight  grades,  it  is  the  only  way  she  can 
distribute  her  time  so  as  to  get  the  best  results  in  the  short  time  at  her  disposal. 
Furthermore,  there  is  something  to  be  gained  by  the  association  of  pupils  in  a 
class.  They  learn  from  one  another  and  have  a  means  of  measuring  their  attain¬ 
ments  with  those  of  their  fellows. 

EXAMINATIONS  AND  THE  FREE  SCHOOL  DIPLOMA. 

There  should  be  no  written  examinations  for  promotion  below  the  fourth  or 
fifth  grade.  There  may  be  written  exercises  of  the  nature  of  examinations. 
Even  then  and  thereafter  promotion  should  not  be  determined  wholly  by  the 
results  of  the  examinations.  The  teacher  should  keep  in  mind  always  that  the 
true  test  for  promotion  is  ability  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  The 
examination,  therefore,  should  be  only  one  means  of  determining  this  ability. 
The  examination  should  be  a  fair  test  of  the  pupil’s  knowledge  of  the  work  he 
has  been  doing,  and  at  the  same  time  should  be  a  test  of  the  pupil’s  ability  to 
generalize  from  this  knowledge  and  apply  it  to  new  situations. 


18 


The  final  examination  for  the  free  school  diploma  will  be  prepared  by  the 
State  Superintendent.  This  examination  will  aim  to  test  the  pupil’s  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  subjects.  It  will  determine  first,  whether  or  not  the  pupil 
has  received  all  from  the  elementary  grades  that  it  is  worth  while  to  get,  and 
second,  whether  or  not  he  is  prepared  to  do  the  work  of  the  first  year  in  high 
school.  Teachers  should  fully  co-operate  with  county  superintendents  in  an 
effort  to  safeguard  the  issuance  of  common  school  diplomas,  so  that  this  impor¬ 
tant  credential  will  retain  its  proper  value. 

The  free  school  diploma  is  serving  as  a  fine  incentive  for  pupils  to  complete 
the  elementary  grades,  especially  where  a  high  school  is  within  reach  of  the 
pupils.  Teachers  will  be  rendering  a  great  service  not  only  to  their  pupils  but 
also  to  the  state  by  acquainting  the  boys  and  girls  with  the  value  of  finishing  the 
course  and  receiving  the  diploma.  To  develop  the  habit  of  finishing  a  task  once 
begun  is  an  essential  step  toward  success  in  life.  Winning  promotions  year  by 
year  and  finally  this  diploma  will  be  a  valuable  contribution  toward  fixing  such 
a  habit. 

LITERARY  AND  SOCIAL  CENTER  EXERCISES. 

Every  school  ought  to  make  some  provision  for  so-called  “literary  or  social 
center  exercises.”  It  is  perhaps  best  for  certain  reasons  to  have  this  done  in 
the  school  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher,  but  if  there  is  sufficient  interest 
among  the  patrons  to  maintain  a  good  literary  society  or  social  center  meeting 
in  the  school  house  at  night,  it  is  well  to  organize  it.  The  literary  exercises  of 
the  school  cannot  assume  that  breadth  of  scope  which  the  literary  society  for 
the  whole  community  does. 

The  school  should,  in  a  measure  at  least,  become  a  social  center  for  the  dis¬ 
trict.  The  regular  meetings  of  a  literarv^  society  furnish  the  opportunity  and 
occasion  for  the  patrons  of  the  school  to  meet  and  discuss  the  subjects  that  are 
of  interest  to  them.  It  affords  the  teacher  also  an  opportunity  to  meet  the 
patrons,  to  become  acquainted  with  them,  to  explain  the  work  of  the  school,  to 
interest  them  in  its  work,  and  to  enlist  their  co-operation. 

There  will  always  be  in  ever>'  community  those  whose  ability  and  informa¬ 
tion  fit  them  to  discuss  the  larger  questions  of  the  day.  They  bring  to  these 
discussions  the  results  of  their  own  experience  and  knowledge  of  affairs,  and 
the  younger  members  of  the  society  profit  greatly  by  hearing  them.  In  this 
way  such  an  organization  renders  both  an  intellectual  and  a  social  service. 

Teachers  must  not  lo.se  sight  of  the  impressionable  nature  of  young  folks — 
of  their  inquisitiveness,  dreamings,  ambitions,  and  habits  of  imitation.  The 
public  meetings,  if  well  planned  and  managed,  will  make  good  use  of  such  possi¬ 
bilities  of  giving  information,  stirring  desire  to  be  and  do,  and  of  making  proper 
ideals  of  public  welfare  and  organized  procedure.  Such  meetings  should  be  con¬ 
ducted  so  as  to  give  pupils  instructions  and  practice  in  presiding,  making  motions, 
keeping  minutes,  making  short  organized  talks  and  arguments,  etc. 

The  work,  so  far  as  it  is  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  should  be  carefully 
supervised.  Pupils  left  to  themselves  are  apt  to  select  readings,  recitations,  etc., 
with  reference  to  some  vein  of  humor  which  is  apt  to  be  coarse.  The  literarj^ 
work  should  aid  in  the  appreciation  of  good  literature.  To  this  end  the  teacher 
should  help  the  pupil  to  select  his  material  from  writers  of  known  ability  and 
reputation.  The  fact  that  material  of  this  kind  can  be  used  in  the  literary  work 
furnishes  a  stronger  motive  for  the  careful  memorizing  of  select  poems  and  other 
selections  from  literature. 


19 


The  exercises  of  most  value  to  the  pupil,  however,  are  those  which  call  upon  him 
to  work  up  in  his  own  way  the  material  which  he  may  have  accumulated  on  any 
subject.  This  is  original  work.  Theme  writing  is  to  literature  and  reading  what 
the  laboratory  is  to  scientific  study.  It  is  the  means  of  working  up  into  usable 
form  the  materials  which  one  collects.  Hence  the  essay,  oration,  or  written  debate 
is  valuable  in  developing  the  original  power  of  the  pupil  and  teaches  him  to  arrange 
his  ideas  and  express  them  in  the  most  forcible  way. 

Those  in  charge  of  the  schools  should  not  be  content  to  keep  on  holding  such 
meetings  in  the  same  routine  fashion  without  any  show  of  definite  purposes  or 
originality.  Let  the  teacher  enlist  the  best  talent  of  the  community  for  such 
projects  and  programs  as  are  suggested  below: 

1.  How  Can  We  Improve  Our  School  Property? 

2.  How  Can  We  Make  Our  Community  More  Sanitary? 

3.  How  Can  We  Make  our  Community  More  Beautiful? 

4.  How  Can  We  Produce  More  In  Our  Community? 

5.  Local  History. 

6.  Special  Days. 

(State  and  National  bulletins,  journals,  magazines,  and  papers  are  full 
of  suggestions  for  such  programs.) 

7.  Athletic  and  Play  Days. 

8.  Parades  and  Exhibitions,  including  Floats,  Demonstrations  and  Pan¬ 
tomimes. 

9.  Fairs  and  Exhibits. 

(The  Extension  Department  of  The  College  of  Agriculture,  Morgantown, 
can  help  much  with  these.) 

10.  Community  Singing  and  Special  Music. 

11.  Evenings  With  the  Poets  and  Artists. 

The  State  Department  of  Schools  will  be  pleased  to  give  suggestions  and 
material  for  such  programs  to  teachers  who  make  inquiry. 

READING  CIRCLE  WORK. 

First.  The  value  of  the  Reading  Circle  work  to  the  teacher  lies  first  in  this, 
that  it  selects  his  professional  books  for  him.  The  texts  recommended  for  study 
from  year  to  year  are  selected  with  especial  care,  both  as  to  their  treatment  of 
the  subject  and  as  to  their  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  teachers  of  the  state. 
They  can  be  depended  upon  as  being  sound  in  their  teaching,  and  they  are  se¬ 
lected  with  reference  to  the  particular  needs  of  our  own  state.  Many  books  are 
examined  before  a  selection  is  made.  With  the  great  multiplicity  of  books  on 
educational  subjects  now  coming  from  the  press,  the  matter  of  proper  selection 
of  one’s  professional  reading  is  of  great  importance  to  the  teacher. 

Second.  Every  teacher,  whether  he  has  had ‘a  normal  course  or  not,  must 
read  some  educational  books  in  order  to  grow  professionally.  No  teacher  can 
long  continue  to  do  successful  work  who  is  not  keeping  up  with  the  progress  in 
his  profession. 

This  progress  has  been  so  rapid  in  recent  years  that  it  requires  the  teacher 
to  be  on  the  alert  all  the  time.  Ten  years  has  seen  almost  a  complete  change 
in  the  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  school  and  of  the  methods  of  attaining  that 
purpose.  These  changes  are  reflected  in  the  more  recent  books  and  literature  and, 
therefore,  they  are  the  sources  to  which  teachers  must  go  for  their  own  knowl- 


20 


edge  of  the  progress  and  current  tendencies  in  education.  Constant  reading 
of  the  literature  of  the  profession  is  necessar^^  to  one’s  professional  growth. 

Third.  The  aim  in  the  Reading  Circle  work  is  to  select  books  from  year 
to  year  so  as  to  present  difTerent  phases  of  education  or  different  fields  of  study. 
The  history  of  education,  psychology,  method  and  the  general  principles  of  teach¬ 
ing,  all,  by  this  means,  receive  their  proper  consideration  and  the  teacher’s  pro¬ 
fessional  reading  maintains  a  balance  and  proportion  which  it  otherwise  might 
not  have.  * 

Fourth.  By  the  purchase  from  year  to  year  of  the  books  recommended 
for  reading,  one  soon  accumulates  a  library  of  well-selected  professional  books 
with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar.  Frequent  reading  and  study  of  these 
works  help,  at  least,  to  furnish  clearer  ideas  of  the  purposes  of  the  public  school 
and  of  the  processes  of  educating  the  child.  The  more  clearly  these  purposes 
and  processes  are  seen  the  more  direct  become  the  efforts  of  the  teacher  and  the 
better  are  the  results  of  his  teaching.  In  other  words,  careful  study  of  the  books 
prescribed  in  the  Reading  Circle  will  tend  to  more  efficient  work  by  the  teacher. 

Fifth.  An  actual,  immediate  money  value  may  attach  to  Reading  Circle 
work.  Teachers  passing  a  uniform  examination  on  two  prescribed  Reading  Circle 
books  in  any  year  with  grades  of  85%  or  more,  can  secure  a  Coupon  of  Credit, 
which  has  a  cash  value  of  one  dollar  per  month  additional  salary  for  the  time 
taught  in  that  year.'  The  same  kind  of  coupon  may  be  secured  by  doing  credit 
home-class  study  in  the  Reading  Circle  books  offered  by  some  of  the  state  normal 
schools. 

PLAY. 

All  normal  children  like  to  play.  If  a  child  shows  no  interest  in  games,  that  child 
should  give  the  teacher  concern  similar  to  that  felt  for  a  sick  child.  The  wise 
teacher  will  turn  to  good  account  the  universal  play  instinct.  Through  its 
proper  exercise  and  guidance  children  can  be  developed  physically;  relieved  of 
over-timidity  in  the  company  of  others;  taught  the  important  rules  of  give- 
and-take  and  unselfish  co-operation  for  the  common  good  of  the  team  and  group; 
impressed  with  the  importance  and  dignity  of  fair  play;  and  brought  into  good 
relationship  with  fellow  pupils  and  teacher.  While  the  foregoing  results  should 
be  obtained  through  games,  they  must  not  interfere  with  joyous,  free  play  for 
the  sake  of  fun  which,  after  all,  is  necessary  to  secure  the  objects  enumerated. 

We  do  not  have  enough  variety  in  our  games  and  do  not  always  organize  our 
contests  so  as  to  bring  out  the  most  zest.  Since  play  is  such  an  important  element 
in  the  school  program,  teachers  should  feel  responsible  for  knowing  the  subjects 
as  they  do  arithmetic  or  grammar.  Make  a  study  of  some  of  the  material  listed 
in  the  paragraph  below. 

In  schools  large  enough,  contests  between  rooms,  and  classes  should  be  staged. 
On  some  special  occasions,  athletic  contests,  especially  field  meets  including 
contests  for  all  sizes  of  children,  should  be  held.  Leaders  of  such  contests  should 
be  familiar  with  the  rules  and  see  that  the  events  are  conducted  in  the  best 
form. 

For  further  study  of  games  it  is  recommended  that  the  teacher  procure  a 
copy  of  “Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and  Gymnasium,”  by  Jessie 
H.  Bancroft,  published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  It  names  and 
describes  a  large  number  of  games  suitable  for  each  grade  in  the  elementary  school. 
Another  book  of  games  costing  less  is  Johnston’s  “What  to  Do  at  Recess;” 
Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York,  price  25  cents. 


21 


CHARACTER  AND  HABITS. 

Proper  behavior  should  be  one  of  the  major  aims  of  education.  Knowledge 
finds  its  proper  use  through  behavior  determined  by  sound  character.  An  in¬ 
dividual’s  character  is  the  working  sum  total  of  that  individual’s  habits,  and  it  is 
the  high  privilege  of  the  teacher  and  the  school  to  have  much  to  do  with  form¬ 
ing  the  permanent  habits  of  young  folks. 

There  are  two  distinct  periods  in  character  building  that  the  teacher  must 
recognize  if  the  most  desirable  results  are  to  be  obtained.  The  period  of  child¬ 
hood  from  si.x  to  about  twelve  or  thirteen  and  the  period  of  youth  from  twelve 
or  thirteen  to  about  twenty  years  or  later  must  be  clearly  distinguished.  In 
childhood  the  instincts  are  individualistic,  mostly  for  self.  The  appeal  must 
be  made  only  in  so  far  as  the  child  can  see  a  personal  benefit  to  be  derived.  The 
important  thing  in  childhood  is  to  have  the  child  act  out  ever>^  moral  idea  and 
precept  that  is  to  be  learned.  A  properly  organized  school  furnishes  very  excel¬ 
lent  situations  for  the  child  to  do  whatls  to  be  learned.  With  the  child  even  more 
than  with  the  youth  the  doing  is  the  learning. 

As  soon  as  the  child  attains  to  the  age  of  youth  a  very  different  manner  of 
treatment  must  be  accorded  him.  His  social  instincts  now  make  it  possible  for 
him  to  become  morally  whatever  his  environment  will  produce  in  him.  He  now 
has  a  natural  disposition  to  do  and  to  live  for  other  people.  The  teacher  should 
not  only  recognize  this  new  sense,  but  he  must  also  recognize  that  the  youth  has 
a  keen  sense  of  the  respect,  reverence,  and  confidence  that  he  is  worthy  of.  He 
should  be  treated  now  as  one  whose  opinions  and  behavior  are  of  real  worth  to 
other  people. 

Some  of  the  things  that  the  child  should  learn  are  cleanliness,  neatness,  prompt¬ 
ness,  regularity  and  obedience.  It  is  also  well  that  the  child  should  learn  that  it 
should  pay  for  a  benefit  before  it  enjoys.  Teach  by  incidents,  illustrations, 
and  stories  well  told  to  impress  the  idea  and  to  secure  the  proper  response  in 
conduct.  Show  that  kindness,  honesty  and  truthfulness  have  their  sure  reward. 
Teach  that  industry,  politeness,  and  respect  for  other  people  are  desirable  virtues 
and  that  idleness,  rudeness  and  irreverence  are  vices  to  be  avoided. 

Teach  the  youth  to  see  clearly  the  need  and  value  of  institutions,  of  govern¬ 
ment  and  of  society.  Use  biography,  history,  and  literature  to  show  how  civiliza¬ 
tion  depends  upon  the  co-operation  of  human  beings  of  all  classes  and  ranks  of 
life.  Give  the  youth  large  opportunity  to  act  out  his  moral  ideas  and  place 
responsibility  upon  him  for  which  he  is  to  account  in  a  reasonable  length  of 
time.  Keep  in  mind  in  dealing  with  both  children  and  youth  that  prevention  and 
not  reformation  is  the  school’s  function.  The  time  to  act  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  before  the  impulse  and  instinct  have  resulted  in  undesirable  behavior. 

THE  DAILY  PROGRAM. 

The  arranging  of  a  daily  program  is  always  a  difficult  thing  to  do  in  a  rural 
school  of  eight  grades.  And  yet  the  success  of  the  school  depends  largely  on  how 
well  this  program  of  daily  work  is  arranged.  The  tendency  among  teachers  is 
to  provide  for  too  many  classes.  Some  teachers  have  been  found  trying  to  do 
the  impossible  task  of  teaching  from  30  to  40  classes  a  day.  There  should  not 
be  more  than  20  to  25. 

How  to  avoid  having  too  many  classes  is  a  problem  that  confronts  every 
rural  teacher  of  a  one-room  school  of  seven  or  eight  grades.  The  problem  can 
be  solved  only  by  alternation  and  correlation  of  studies. 


22 


Alternation  is  the  systematic  and  regular  union  of  two  grades  of  pupils,  both 
grades  doing  the  work  of  one  year  in  one  class,  while  the  other  year’s  work  is 
omitted.  The  next  year  the  work  omitted  is  taken  up  and  the  first  year’s  work 
dropped.  In  this  way  each  pupil  does  all  the  work  of  the  course,  but  not  all  in 
the  same  order,  and  the  number  of  classes  is  greatly  diminished,  the  recitation 
periods  lengthened  and  more  efficient  work  done. 

Alternation  of  classes  may  begin  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades.  It  is  a  very 
simple  matter  to  teach  the  fifth  grade  work  in  geography  to  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grade  pupils  in  1918-19  and  in  1919-20  to  teach  the  sixth  grade  geography  to 
fifth  and  sixth  grade  pupils,  and  so  on,  alternating  each  succeeding  year. 

In  a  similar  manner  fifth  grade  reading  and  sixth  grade  histor>%  fifth  and  sixth 
grade  arithmetic  and  fifth  and  sixth  grade  language  work  may  be  alternated. 
In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  all  the  work  may  be  alternated  where  it  is  not 
more  economical  to  correlate  with  other  subjects.  Correlation  is  here  used  to 
mean  the  teaching  of  one  subject,  as  spelling,  while  teaching  composition. 

TYPE  DAILY  PROGRAM  OF  RECITATION  AND  STUDY. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Note  that  this  program  is  but  a  type  program.  It  is  meant  merely  to  be 
suggestive.  The  number  of  pupils  and  the  number  of  grades  will  determine  the 
daily  program  of  your  school. 

2.  Study  this  type  daily  program  diligently  until  you  have  mastered  the 
general  plan  of  recitation  and  study  periods.  To  do  so  will  enable  you  to  work 
out  a  daily  program  for  your  school. 

3.  Note  that  it  is  important  for  children  io  have  regular  times  for  studying 

the  different  subjects  as  well  as  for  reciting. 

4.  Note  what  classes  are  alternated  and  correlated  in  this  type  program. 
It  may  be  that  you  can  extend  these  methods  of  saving  time. 

The  home  economics  may  be  alternated  with  civics  or  with  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  arithmetic.  In  like  manner  the  industrial  arts  may  alternate  with  one 
or  the  other  of  these  subjects.  If  the  class  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  small, 
the  teacher  could  supervise  both  the  home  economics  and  the  industrial  arts 
at  the  same  period.  WTien  this  can  be  done,  civics  and  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
arithmetic  should  alternate  and  a  daily  period  of  20  minutes  be  used  for  home 
economics  and  industrial  arts. 


DAILY  PROGRAM  OF  RECITATION  AND  STUDY. 


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SECTION  II 

Outline  of  Studies  by  Grades 

Grades  I -VI 


OUTLINE  OF  STUDIES  BY  GRADES. 


(Grades  I-VI.) 

First  Grade. 

Reading — ^Text:  Wheeler’s  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Supplementary:  Riverside  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Child’s  World  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Primer  and  First  Reader. 
Elson’s  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Art  Literature  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Language — ^No  textbook  in  first  grade.  See  Language  and  Composition,  Sec¬ 
tion  III. 

Writing — Text:  Ec®nomy  Method  of  Writing — Primary. 

Nature  Study — No  textbook.  See  Nature  Study,  Section  III. 

Second  Grade. 

Reading — Text:  Wheeler’s  Second  Reader. 

Supplementary:  Riverside  Second  Reader. 

Child’s  World  Second  Reader. 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Second  Reader. 

Elson’s  Second  Reader. 

Art-Literature  Second  Reader. 

Language — ^No  textbook  in  second  grade.  See  Language  and  Grammar,  Section 

III. 

Writing — Text:  Economy  Method  of  Writing — Primary. 

Nature  Study — ^No  textbook.  See  Nature  Study,  Section  III. 

Third  Grade. 

Reading — Text:  Wheeler’s  Third  Reader. 

Supplementary:  Riverside  Third  Reader. 

Child’s  World  Third  Reader. 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Third  Reader. 

Elson’s  Third  Reader. 

Art-Literature  Third  Reader. 

Language — ^No  textbook.  See  Language  and  Composition,  Section  III. 
Writing — Text:  Economy  Method  of  Writing — Intermediate. 

Spelling — Mastery  of  Words,  Book  I,  pages  1-50. 

Ajrithmetig — Text:  Hamilton’s  Elementary  Arithmetic,  to  page  107. 

Nature  Study — ^No  textbook.  See  Nature  Study,  Section  III. 

Drawing — Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books. 

Music — Text:  Congdon’s  or  Dann’s  Music  Readers. 


Fourth  Grade. 


Rel\ding — Text:  Wheeler’s  Fourth  Reader.  m 

Supplementary-:  Riverside  Fourth  Reader.  j 

Child’s  World  Fourth  Reader.  ^ 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Fourth  Reader.  i 

Elson’s  Fourth  Reader. 

Art-Literature  Fourth  Reader.  [ 

Language — ^Text:  Kimball’s  Elementary  English,  Book  I,  Part  1.  1*^ 

Writing — Text:  Economy  Method  of  Writing — Intermediate. 

Spelling — ^Text:  Mastery-  of  Words,  Book  I,  pages  51-90. 

Arithmetic — Text:  Hamilton’s  Elementary^  Arithmetic,  to  page  186. 

Natctre  Study  .\nd  Geography — No  textbook  first  half-year.  See  Geography 
Section  III.  Second  half-year,  text:  Fry-e’s  First  Course  in  Geography. 
History — Text:  Mace’s  Beginner’s  History-,  to  page  202. 

Drawing — ^Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books. 

Music — ^Text :  Dann’s  Music  Course. 

Fifth  Grade. 

Literatltre — ^Text:  Elson’s  Grammar  School  Reader,  Book  I  and  Wheeler’s- 
Fifth  Reader. 

Supplementary-:  Riverside  Fifth  Reader. 

Child’s  World  Fifth  Reader. 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Fifth  Reader. 
Art-Literature  Fifth  Reader. 

Language — Text:  Kimball’s  Elementary-  English,  Book  I,  Part  II. 

Writing — ^Text:  Economy  Method  of  Writing — Intermediate. 

Spelling — Text:  Mastery  of  Words.  Book  I,  pages  91-134. 

Arithmetic — ^Text:  Hamilton’s  Elementary  Arithmetic,  to  page  288. 
Geography- — ^Text:  First  half-year,  Frye’s  First  Course  in  Geography.  Second 
half-y-ear,  Fry-e’s  Higher  Geography. 

Ph\-siology  and  Hygiene — ^Text:  Ritchie-Caldwell  Primer  of  Hygiene. 
History — Text:  Mace’s  Beginner’s  History,  pages  202-389. 

Dr.\wing — Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books. 

Music — ^Text  Darm’s  Music  Course. 

Sixth  Grade. 

Literature — ^Text:  Elson’s  Grammar  School  Reader,  Book  II. 

Supplementary:  Riverside  Sixth  Reader. 

Language  .and  Composition — Text:  Kimball’s  Elementary  English,  Book  I,. 
Part  III. 

Writing — ^Text:  Economy  Method  of  Writing — ^Advanced. 

Spelllng — ^Text:  Mastery  of  Words,  Book  II,  pages  1-41. 

Arithmetic — Text:  Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  Part  1. 

Geography — ^Text:  Frye’s  Higher  Geography. 

U.  S.  History — ^Text:  Mace-Tanner’s  Old  Europe  and  Young  America. 
Physiology  and  Hygiene — ^Text:  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Drawing — Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books. 

Music — ^Text:  Dann’s  Music  Course. 

(See  Junior  High  School  Section  for  outline  for  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
grades.) 


SECTION  III 

Outline  of  Studies  by  Subjects 

Grades  I -VI 


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READING  AND  LITERATURE. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Reading  is  the  most  important  study  in  the  curriculum.  It  is  the  most  im¬ 
portant  study  because  nearly  all  the  other  subjects  depend  upon  it.  Arithmetic, 
geography,  history  and  other  branches  are  studied  in  large  part  through  books 
which  the  pupil  must  read.  It  is  important,  moreover,  because  reading  is  one  of 
the  most  convenient  means  that  children — particularly  country  children — have, 
after  they  leave  school,  of  informing  themselves  and  of  amusing  themselves, 
Reading,  then,  is  the  key  that  unlocks  the  great  store  house  of  knowledge  and 
wisdom,  art  and  culture. 

One  of  the  fundamental  aims  of  the  school,  therefore,  is  to  teach  children  to 
read  well,  which  is  to  read  with  ease,  pleasure,  rapidity,  and  intelligence.  In 
fact,  aside  from  nature  study,  geography,  agriculture,  hygiene,  and  handicraft 
work,  the  curriculum  may  be  said  to  exist,  in  part,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the 
child  to  read  well  in  different  subjects;  and  even  the  branches  mentioned  above 
are  supplemented  largely  by  reading.  The  teacher  who  can  teach  reading,  in 
the  broad  sense  in  which  it  is  here  used,  is  a  good  teacher. 

Method  of  Teaching  Primary  Reading. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  method  of  teaching  beginners  to  read  is  very  im¬ 
portant.  Reading  is  the  art  of  getting  the  meaning  from  print  and  writing. 
Any  series  of  exercises  that  enables  the  child  to  learn  this  art  is  a  method  of 
teaching  reading.  But  some  series  of  exercises  are  better  than  others,  easier,  more 
economical  of  time  and  energy,  and  lead  more  directly  into  the  art  of  getting  ideas 
from  print  and  script.  What  is  the  best  method? 

If  we  examine  the  way  in  which  the  child  learns  to  get  the  meaning  from  what 
he  hears,  perhaps  we  shall  see  how  we  should  set  about  training  him  to  get  the 
meaning  from  what  he  sees  on  the  printed  page.  The  infant  sees  a  certain  animal 
with  four  legs,  a  body  of  a  certain  shape,  ears  and  eyes  and  tail.  He  can  recognize 
the  animal  when  he  sees  it;  but  as  yet,  he  does  not  know  any  name  to  apply  to 
it.  But  he  wants  to  know.  His  mother  tells  him  it  is  a  pig,  and  she  has  him 
say  the  word  until  he  can  pronounce  it.  After  some  days  of  forgetting  and  being 
told,  he  succeeds  in  remembering  that  the  sound  pig  is  the  sign  of  that  animal. 
Now,  the  name  given  to  that  animal  might  have  been  gip,  and  the  child  would 
have  been  just  as  well  satisfied.  That  is,  the  name  is  an  artificial  sign  of  the 
idea.  No  amount  of  observing  the  animal  would  have  told  him  what  its  name  is. 
That  is  something  he  has  to  learn  as  a  separate  bit  of  knowledge.  Likewise  he 
learns  that  I  is  a  sound  used  by  a  person  to  represent  himself  when  he  is  speaking 
and  writing;  that  see  is  a  sound  used  to  stand  for  the  act  of  looking,  of  using  the 
eyes  to  observe.  Finally  if  the  sentence  I  see  a  pig  is  spoken,  the  child  recognizes 
the  sounds  as  representing  ideas,  and  he  learns  how  to  express  his  own  ideas  by 
using  these  artificial  sounds.  In  other  words,  he  has  learned  that  certain  sounds 
stand  for  certain  ideas,  and  he  can  articulate  these  sounds  with  the  understanding 
that  he  is  expressing  ideas. 


30 


Observ'e  five  facts  in  this  process:  (1)  The  child  has  but  learned  the  sound- 
signs  of  ideas  that  are  already  familiar  to  him.  He  has  learned  only  how  to  call 
the  things  that  he  knew.  He  has  mastered  the  artificial  symbols  of  previously 
learned  ideas;  he  has  not  acquired  new  ideas.  (2)  He  has  learned  these  names 
ns  wholes,  not  as  parts;  that  is,  he  has  not  learned  the  sound  pig  by  learning  sepa¬ 
rately  the  three  sounds  in  the  word,  or  by  learning  the  three  letters  p-i-g;  he 
has  learned  the  group  of  sounds  as  a  unit.  (3)  He  has  learned  that  each  object 
and  idea  has  its  sound-sign,  and  by  practice  has  developed  some  power  of  learn¬ 
ing  new  sound-signs.  (4)  He  has  learned  to  understand  sounds  by  hearing  them 
often,  and  has  learned  to  utter  the  sounds  by  imitation  and  practice.  (5)  He 
takes  pleasure  in  the  process,  because  he  feels  the  desirability  of  knowing  the 
names  for  the  different  objects  and  ideas. 

Learning  to  read  is  a  similar  process.  Instead  of  learning  sound-signs,  the 
child  is  now  to  learn  print-signs.  The  idea  is  now  expressed  by  means  of  printed 
or  written  letters  combined  in  w^ords  and  sentences,  instead  of  by  means  of  spoken 
sounds,  combined  in  w^ords  and  sentences.  The  child  has  now  a  double  task. 
He  must  not  only  learn  the  print-signs  of  ideas;  he  must  identify  the  print- 
signs  with  the  sound-signs.  The  spoken  word  pig  is  a  sign  of  the  animal;  the 
printed  word  pig  is  another  sign  of  the  animal;  while  the  written  word  pig  is  a 
variety  of  the  printed  sign.  However,  this  double  task  is  not  very  difficult,  since 
the  child  has  already  learned  the  sound-name;  and  as  soon  as  he  learns  the  print- 
name  for  the  same  idea,  he  associates  the  two  names. 

Just  here  one  of  the  fundamental  mistakes  of  teaching  reading  is  often  made: 
the  teacher  thinks  the  child’s  sole  task  is  to  directly  associate  the  two  names. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  child’s  first  task  is  to  associate  the  print-sign  with  the 
idea;  after  he  has  done  that,  he  readily  associates  the  two  names.  That  is,  the 
child  should  be  taught  to  get  ideas  from  the  printed  symbols,  not  merely  to 
pronounce  the  corresponding  spoken  symbols.  There  is  danger  that  the  child  in 
reading  his  lesson  may  only  associate  the  print-sign  with  the  sound-sign;  may  only 
pronounce  words,  instead  of  getting  ideas. 

Naturally,  then,  the  teacher  must  make  sure  that  the  child  understand  and 
express  the  meaning;  and  in  order  to  make  sure,  the  teacher  will  have  to  perform 
a  process  similar  to  that  of  the  mother  when  she  taught  the  child  the  sound-names 
of  ideas. 

I.  The  teacher  must  teach  the  print-signs  of  those  ideas  that  are  already 
familiar  to  the  child.  After  she  has  selected  the  ideas  that  are  familiar  to  the 
children  and  found  some  reading  material  that  deals  with  these  ideas,  she  must 
call  up  the  idea  into  the  child’s  mind.  She  can  do  this  in  four  ways. 

First,  she  may  have  the  objects  themselves  brought  into  the  school  room,  or 
may  take  the  child  out  to  the  objects,  then  have  the  child  get  reacquainted  with 
them.  If  she  wishes  to  teach  the  word  ball,  she  can  have  the  child  handle  the 
ball.  When  she  is  sure  the  child  has  the  idea  of  ball  in  his  mind,  she  shows 
him  that  the  idea  is  represented  by  a  certain  sign;  then  she  writes  the  word  on 
the  board  and  points  it  out  in  the  primer.  She  repeats  the  word  and  the  child 
repeats  it  after  her.  Other  words  she  teaches  in  the  same  way,  reviewing  and 
repeating  from  time  to  time,  just  as  the  mother  has  done. 

Second,  if  the  idea  is  an  action-idea,  the  teacher  has  the  child  perform  the 
action,  then  teaches  him  the  written  and  printed  word  that  names  the  action. 
Thus  she  teaches  toss,  catch,  drop,  etc.,  by  having  the  child  perform  the  actions; 
then  associates  the  action  with  the  word  written  on  the  board,  and  pointed  out 
in  the  chart  or  primer. 


31 


Third,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  have  the  object  before  the  child,  a  picture  is 
often  used.  This  is  one  reason  so  many  pictures  are  found  in  primers  and  first 
readers. 

Fourth,  often  the  teacher  can  bring  the  idea  back  into  the  child’s  mind  by 
asking  questions  and  starting  conversations  about  the  idea.  This  is  not  so  good  a 
way  as  the  others,  but  it  will  serve. 

The  teacher  may  use  any  or  all  of  these  devices,  but  she  must  make  sure 
that  the  children  have  the  idea  clearly  in  mind  before  the  print-sign  of  the  idea 
is  presented;  otherwise  the  child  is  likely  to  merely  pronounce  the  word  without 
associating  it  with  the  idea.  The  new  words  must  always  be  taught  in  this  way 
until  the  child  has  gained  the  power  of  learning  new  words  for  himself.  And, 
whenever  the  reading  lesson  contains  an  unfamiliar  idea,  the  teacher  must  first 
make  the  idea  clear  before  she  tries  to  teach  the  word. 

II.  The  words  should  be  taught  as  wholes,  not  as  parts.  The  mother  taught 
the  sound-sign  of  pig  by  enunciating  the  entire  combination  of  sounds,  not  by 
uttering  the  three  sounds  one  by  one.  The  teacher  should  teach  the  print- 
sign  of  ideas  by  presenting  the  entire  combination  of  letters  and  sounds.  In 
other  words,  neither  a-b-c’s  nor  phonics  should  be  taught  first.  The  whole 
words  represents  an  idea,  but  no  part  of  it  represents  an  idea;  therefore,  it  should 
not  be  taught  by  parts. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  child  should  be  taught  to  read  whole  sentences.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  a  word  rarely  expresses  a  complete  idea,  while  a  sentence  does. 
And,  as  reading  consists  in  getting  ideas  from  print  or  writing,  the  child  should 
be  taught  to  read  whole  sentences  as  units  of  ideas.  This  he  can  do  almost  from 
the  beginning.  As  new  words  are  taught,  they  are  combined  with  old  words  in 
sentences.  For  example;  When  the  child  has  read  the  sentence,  “I  see  a  pig,” 
he  can  read  sentences  like  “  I  see  a  dog,”  “  I  see  a  cat,”  etc.,  as  rapidly  as  he  learns 
the  new  words.  If  the  child  acquires  the  habit  of  reading  sentences  as  wholes, 
and  is  taught  to  study  a  sentence  through  before  he  begins  to  read  aloud,  he  will 
not  form  the  habit,  so  fatal  to  good  reading,  of  reading  in  the  following  fashion : 
“I”  (pause)  “see”  (pause)  “a”  (pause)  “pig,”  laboriously  putting  word  to  word 
and  failing  to  perceive  and  express  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

III.  The  pupil  has  learned  that  each  idea  has  its  print-sign,  just  as  previously 
he  has  learned  from  his  mother  that  each  idea  has  its  sound-sign;  and  he  has 
developed  some  power  of  learning  new  print-signs.  Now  it  is  evident  that  this 
power  must  be  increased,  so  that  he  may  learn  for  himself  print-signs  of  familiar 
ideas.  How  is  he  to  increase  this  power? 

First,  by  being  shown  that  many  words  are  alike  in  appearance  and  sound, 
.and  that  he  can  learn  a  new  word  by  its  resemblance  to  a  word  he  knows.  Here 
comes  in  the  teaching  of  phonics.  The  pupil  knows  the  appearance  and  sound 
■of  certain  words — the  word  pig,  for  example.  Other  w'ords  resemble  this:  big, 
dig,  fig,  jig,  wig,  etc.  With  a  little  instruction,  the  child  learns  that  ig  has  a 
certain  sound.  In  the  same  way  he  learns  that  other  letters  and  combinations  of 
letters  have  certain  sounds,  until  finally  he  can  discover  the  pronunciation  of  new 
words  by  their  resemblance  to  ones  already  learned.  This  process  of  comparing 
a  new  word  with  old  ones  will  come  quite  naturally  and  sometimes  unconsciously; 
•but  the  teacher  must  give  a  good  deal  of  assistance.  Very  often  a  word  is  not 
phonetic;  (that  is,  is  not  pronounced  as  it  is  spelled)  but  in  most  cases  it  has 
enough  resemblance  to  a  word  already  taught  to  help  the  child,  with  a  little 
prompting,  discover  the  pronunciation.  Then,  if  the  child  has  already  formed 
the  habit  of  associating  the  sight  and  sound  of  a  word  with  the  idea,  he  learns 


32 


to  discover  the  idea  represented  by  this  new  word.  In  general,  the  exercises  ii> 
phonics  need  not  be  complex,  and  they  should  arise  out  of  the  reading  lessons. 

Second,  by  inferring  the  meaning  of  a  new  word.  For  instance,  suppose  the 
child  sees  this  sentence:  “The  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  west.”  If 
he  knows  the  meaning  of  all  the  words  except  “west,”  he  may  be  able  to  infer  the 
meaning  of  that  word.  Pictures  assist  materially  in  this  process  of  inference. 
This  inference — guessing,  as  we  call  it — goes  on  constantly  and  is  one  of  the  un¬ 
conscious  ways  in  which  the  child  learns  new  print-signs. 

IV.  The  teacher  must  read  for  the  pupils,  so  that  they  may  learn  through 
imitation;  and  must  drill  them  until  they  recognize  the  word  readily  wherever 
they  see  it.  As  to  the  drill,  the  best  possible  way  is  to  supply  plenty  of  supple¬ 
mentary  reading  material,  in  order  that  the  child  may  learn  the  new  words  in 
fresh  combinations,  and  that  his  interest  may  be  kept  intense.  Many  teachers 
err  in  assuming  that  a  child  will  master  a  word  by  learning  it  once;  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  dozens  of  repetitions  are  necessary  to  fix  some  words  in  his  mind.  Drill  is 
an  absolute  essential  in  teaching  primar\’  reading,  but  it  is  best  to  make  this  drill 
as  interesting  as  possible  by  varying  the  material  used. 

V.  The  teacher  must  do  her  best  to  make  the  pupil  feel  the  desirability  of 
learning  to  read.  The  child  learns  to  recognize  the  words  he  hears  and  to  speak 
these  words  because  he  feels  that  it  is  desirable.  Usually  the.  child  feels  a  desire 
to  learn  to  read  also,  but  often  his  desire  becomes  weak  and  must  be  strength¬ 
ened.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this. 

First,  the  teacher  may  read  poems  and  read  or  tell  interesting  stories  to  the 
children,  and  emphasize  the  fact  that  if  they  learn  to  read  they  may  find  and 
enjoy  such  stories  for  themselves.*  The  teacher  must  be  such  a  good  oral  reader,, 
that  she  wall  at  once  set  a  good  model  for  imitation  and  start  a  longing  in  the 
pupils  to  read  as  well  as  she  does.  In  the  country  school  the  child’s  desire  to- 
learn  to  read  is  often  strengthened  by  hearing  the  older  pupils  read;  and  of  course 
the  fact  that  the  child’s  parents  and  older  brothers  and  sisters  can  read  is  another 
stimulus. 

Second,  the  children  should  have  supplementary-  readers,  so  that  they  may 
continually  be  getting  acquainted  with  fresh,  interesting  material.  A  child  soon 
loses  interest  if  he  is  forced  to  read  the  same  book  over  and  over.  A  number  of 
suitable  books  should  be  at  the  child’s  disposal  in  the  school  library. 

Third,  the  teacher  should  introduce  the  lesson  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  in 
the  children  a  desire  to  learn  to  read  it.  A  few  pointed,  suggestive  questions  and 
remarks  bearing  on  the  coming  lesson  and  hinting  at  what  is  to  be  found,  will 
often  stimulate  a  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  it. 

Fourth,  the  teacher  should  clear  away  the  difficulties  that  are  too  great  for 
the  children  to  conquer.  When  the  lesson  is  being  assigned,  she  should  lead  the 
children  to  understand  the  unfamiliar  ideas  and  the  difficult  words,  and  should 
plant  within  their  minds  the  suggestions  that  will  enable  them  to  read  with  ease 
and  pleasure. 

Fifth,  the  teacher  should  be  patient  with  the  children,  remembering  that 
learning  to  read  is  a  complex  and  difficult  mental  act;  and  that  harshness,  or 
even  impatience,  often  crushes  the  desire  to  learn. 

Summary  of  Method. 

Let  as  summarize  the  method  of  teaching  primary  reading.  (1)  The  pupils 
should  be  taught  sentences  and  words  as  wholes.  (2)  The  words  taught  should 


33 


represent  familiar  ideas,  and  the  ideas  should  be  brought  up  into  the  child’s 
mind  before  the  print-signs  are  presented.  (3)  The  new  words  should  be  taught 
in  groups,  so  that  the  child  will  learn  the  separate  sounds  as  soon  as  possible; 
and  the  teacher  must  help  him  form  the  habit  of  discovering  new  words  through 
their  resemblance  to  the  old.  (4)  Constant  imitation  and  repetition  are  neces¬ 
sary  to  fix  the  words  in  the  child’s  mind.  (.5)  The  teacher  should  strengthen  the 
child’s  desire  to  learn  to  read  and  should  make  the  process  as  pleasant  and  inter¬ 
esting  as  possib’e.  (These  are  the  essentials  of  the  method.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  many  variations  of  the  method  must  be  employed  to  fit  different 
children.) 


The  Alphabet. 

Incidentally  the  alphabet  is  easily  learned.  The  teacher  must  remember  that 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  decidedly  different  from  the  sounds 
of  the  letters,  and  they  have  to  be  taught  as  separate  bits  of  information.  More¬ 
over,  they  have  little  or  no  connection  with  learning  to  read.  Suppose  the  child 
learns  the  letters  in  the  word  dog.  If  he  spells  them  out,  he  pronounces  deeogee, 
which  is  certainly  not  the  way  to  pronounce  the  word  and  gives  little  clue  to  the 
pronunciation.  But  after  the  child  learns  to  read,  he  feels  some  curiosity  about 
these  different  characters  and  wilhngly  learns  their  names.  Of  course,  he  must 
know  the  alphabet  names  before  he  can  spell  orally;  but  this  need  not  come  before 
the  second  half  of  the  first  year.  He  need  not  know  the  letters  in  their  order 
(a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.)  until  it  is  time  for  him  to  consult  a  dictionary;  though,  of  course, 
he  will  usually  learn  them  much  sooner.  The  names  and  order  of  the  letters  are 
often  taught  by  means  of  an  alphabet  song. 

Reading  Versus  Literature. 

The  child  should  have  a  basal  primer,  a  reader  and  at  least  two  or  three  supple¬ 
mentary  readers  in  the  first  grade;  and  in  each  of  the  grades  above  the  first,  he 
should  have  at  least  one  supplementary  reader.  These  readers  will  consist  of 
two  kinds  of  material:  informational  reading  matter  and  literature.  The  differ¬ 
ence  is  implied  in  the  names.  The  informational  reading  matter  consists  of  lessons 
designed  to  give  the  child  knowledge  of  various  kinds.  The  literature  consists  of 
poems,  stories,  etc.,  designed  to  arouse  his  emotions,  and  increase  his  enjoyment 
and  his  love  of  beauty.  Of  course,  these  two  overlap:  informational  reading 
matter  often  has  some  of  the  qualities  of  literature,  and  literature  often  gives  the 
child  information  and  knowledge;  but  the  two  should  be  distinct  in  the  teacher’s 
mind,  since  they  should  be  taught  in  different  ways. 

The  literature  should  predominate  all  through  the  grades,  since  the  pupil 
has  access  to  much  informational  reading  matter  in  his  various  textbooks;  and 
after  the  fifth  grade,  reading  ceases  entirely  as  a  study,  in  the  remaining  grades 
literature  taking  all  the  time  previously  given  over  to  both  literature  and  reading. 
A  good  many  teachers  think  that  literature  is  not  as  important  as  informational 
reading,  since  it  does  not  teach  the  children  facts.  On  the  contrary,  the  arousing 
of  good,  pure,  strong  feelings  is  about  the  most  important  act  a  teacher  can  per¬ 
form,  since  it  is  feelings  that  urge  to  good  or  evil  and  that  make  or  mar  these  boys 
and  girls  who  are  the  future  citizens  of  the  republic.  Time  spent  upon  the  reading 
of  good  literature  is  time  very  well  spent. 


34 


The  informational  reading  matter  is  the  material  upon  which  the  mechanics 
of  reading  should  be  based.  The  teacher  should  always  introduce  the  lessons, 
of  course;  and,  in  the  first  year,  she  will  have  to  assist  the  children  with  new 
words  and  unfamiliar  ideas  and  to  read  aloud  to  furnish  them  a  model.  But, 
after  that,  since  the  reading  is  usually  direct  and  straightforward  prose  and 
presents  few  mental  difficulties,  she  should  shift  the  burden  of  work  upon  the 
pupils.  They  do  the  reading — much  of  it  aloud, — and  the  teacher  takes  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  situation  to  teach  proper  position,  the  best  way  of  holding  the  book, 
new  words,  spelling,  pronunciation,  enunciation,  inflection,  and  quality  of  voice 
— in  short,  all  that  which  we  call  the  “mechanics”  of  reading. 

In  the  teaching  of  literature  in  the  lower  grades,  the  teacher’s  work  is  more 
difficult.  She  must  present  the  lessons  in  such  a  way  as  to  arouse  the  pupils’ 
interest,  and  to  give  them  hints  that  will  assist  them  to  enjoy  the  selection; 
and  in  the  conduct  of  the  lesson,  she  must  help  the  children  get  into  the  spirit 
of  the  selection,  fill  in  the  details  of  the  scene,  become  intensely  interested  in  the 
contents  and  saturated  with  the  emotions.  Then  she  must  read  aloud,  naturally, 
pleasingly;  and  must  have  the  children  read  after  her.  The  purpose  of  the  lesson 
in  literature  is  not  to  teach  the  mechanics  of  reading,  but  to  start  healthy  emotions 
and  train  the  children  in  the  appreciation  of  literature,  so  that  they  will  like  to 
read  it  after  they  leave  school.  The  teacher  should,  therefore,  not  emphasize 
the  mechanics  of  reading,  but  the  spirit  of  the  selection — though,  of  course,  the 
work  in  literature  will  do  much  incidentally  toward  making  the  children  better 
oral  readers. 

Oral  Reading. 

As  the  children  advance  in  the  grades  the  teacher  should  drop  more  and  more 
into  the  background.  Instead  of  reading  first,  she  will  now  have  the  children 
read  first,  so  that  by  the  time  they  have  finished  the  eighth  grade  they  can  read 
expressively  and  intelligently,  without  the  teacher’s  assistance.  The  teacher 
should  not  make  definite  and  binding  rules  for  reading  aloud;  she  should  train 
the  children  to  express  themselves  according  to  the  natural  spirit  of  the  selection 
or  passage,  reading  gayly  or  sadly,  loudly  or  softly,  rapidly  or  slowly,  as  the 
emotion  sugge.sts.  She  should  not  make  rules  as  to  how  long  to  pause  after  a 
punctuation  mark:  that  depends  entirely  upon  the  meaning  and  emphasis.  The 
teacher  should  be  extremely  careful  not  to  let  poetry  be  read  in  a  sing-song 
manner.  Poetry  is  measured  off  into  accented  and  unaccented  syllables;  and 
there  is  a  tendency,  when  one  gets  into  the  strong  swing  of  the  meter,  to  keep 
this  meter  strictly  regular.  Sometimes  this  spoils  the  meaning  and  interferes 
with  the  musical  qualities  of  the.  poetry.  The  children  should  be  taught  to  read 
for  the  meaning  and  emotion  and  to  disregard  the  metrical  accent  whenever  it 
conflicts  with  the  natural  accent.  Some  kinds  of  selections  are  not  thoroughly 
enjoyed  until  they  are  read  aloud;  humorous  selections,  or  passages,  sections 
in  which  the  feeling  runs  high,  passages  of  great  beauty  or  fine  phrasing,  etc. 

Silent  Reading. 

The  teacher  should  train  the  children  in  silent  reading,  since  most  of  their 
reading  in  later  life  will  be  silent.  They  should  nearly  always  read  silently  before 
they  read  orally;  and  often  the  teacher  should  merely  examine  them  as  to  the 
content  of  the  informational  reading  matter  without  asking  them  to  read  aloud. 
(The  literature,  especially  the  poetry,  should  be  read  aloud;  and  in  the  upper 


35 


grades  the  children  should  take  their  books  home  and  read  aloud  in  preparation 
for  the  recitation.)  There  should  be  many  suitable  books  in  the  library  that 
the  child  may  read  silently  in  school  or  at  home,  and  the  teacher  should  en¬ 
courage  rapid  but  intelligent  silent  reading  in  these  books.  Often  she  should  ask 
questions  to  make  sure  that  the  children  have  mastered  the  subject  matter. 
The  teacher  should  urge  the  children  to  read  much,  and  should  train  them  in  the 
power  to  enjoy  and  appreciate  books,  to  the  end  that  they  may  form  good  reading 
habits  which  will  remain  fixed  after  the  children  leave  school.  Schoo  s  generally 
have  ignored  too  much  the  fundamental  importance  of  silent  reading,  both  in 
school  and  out. 

Dramatization. 

The  teacher  and  the  children  should  occasionally  dramatize  a  literature  lesson 
— that  is,  make  a  play  out  of  it.  In  a  story  in  which  there  are  several  characters, 
let  the  children  take  the  place  of  the  different  characters  and  play  out  the  story, 
making  up  the  conversation  as  they  go  along.  They  do  not  need  a  stage  or  cos¬ 
tumes  or  elaborate  stage  furniture  or  objects;  they  can  do  very  well  with  what 
they  find  in  the  school  room.  Occasionally  they  may  give  a  public  performance, 
with  home-made  costumes,  bramatizing  is  not  difficult,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best 
possible  ways  of  realizing  and  appreciating  a  story.  After  the  children  have 
dramatized  plays  for  some  time,  they  will  begin  to  see  more  clearly  the  dramatic 
qualities  in  what  they  read,  and  will  read  with  more  understanding  and  enjoy¬ 
ment.  Not  every  kind  of  selection  is  suitable  for  dramatization;  in  general, 
stories  with  a  great  deal  of  action  based  on  a  very  simple  plot  and  not  involving 
complex  characters,  are  best.  If  the  dramatization  of  a  selection  would  not 
emphasize  and  supplement  the  literary  values  of  the  selection,  it  should  not  be 
dramatized. 

Correlation. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  correlate  the  reading  and  literature  with  the 
other  branches.  If,  in  the  history  class,  for  example,  you  are  studying  the  Civil 
War  period,  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  children  study  Whitman’s  poem,  “My 
Captain,’’  and  Lincoln’s  Gettysburg  Speech,  and  any  other  selections  that  fit 
in  well  with  the  history.  If  you  do  not  happen  to  be  at  those  particular  lessons, 
turn  to  them  anyway.  It  is  of  little  importance  whether  or  not  you  study  the 
lessons  in  order,  and  it  is  of  great  importance  that  you  study  the  lessons  at  the 
time  when  they  will  have  the  most  significance. 

The  teacher  should  also  teach  reading  in  connection  with  the  other  studies. 
The  pupils  should  be  taught  to  read  the  arithmetic  problems  as  intelligently 
as  they  read  their  reading  lesson,  for  often  they  fail  to  solve  the  problems  because 
they  have  not  really  read  them.  They  should  be  taught  to  get  the  ideas  out  of 
their  geography  and  history  lessons  in  the  same  manner  as  they  do  out  of  their 
reading  lessons. 


The  Librarj . 

A  library  of  at  least  a  hundred  well-selected  books  should  be  in  the  school 
library,  and  the  teacher  should  encourage  the  children  to  read  them  in  their 
leisure  time,  at  school  or  home.  Occasionally  give  the  reading  and  literature 
period  up  to  discussion  of  the  books  the  children  have  been  reading  and  have 
each  pupil  read  aloud  an  interesting  incident  from  the  book  he  has  been  reading. 


36 


General  Outline  of  Work. 


In  the  first  four  years.  Wheeler’s  Readers  are  used  as  basal  readers.  Supple¬ 
mentary  readers  are  suggested  under  each  grade.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  years, 
Elson’s  Grammar  School  Literature  Readers  are  used,  with  supplementary  work 
as  suggested  in  the  following  pages. 

The  mechanical  elements  in  learning  to  read  should  be  largely  mastered  by  the 
end  of  the  fourth  year;  that  is,  by  the  end  of  this  time,  the  children  should  be 
able  to  master  the  subject  matter  of  the  lessons  with  ease  and  rapidity,  and 
should  be  able  to  express  the  meaning  intelligently  and  clearly.  The  reading 
process  by  this  time  should  be  largely  unconscious;  the  child  should  not  have  to 
work  consciously  and  laboriously  at  his  reading  lesson  any  more  than  he  has  to 
labor  hard  to  do  his  speaking.  Of  course,  if  a  child  has  not  acquired  skill  in  the 
mechanics  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade,  this  work  must  be  carried  over  into  the 
fifth  grade.  Through  the  remaining  years  of  the  course  the  emphasis  should  be 
placed  upon  the  literary"  phases  of  reading:  development  of  imagination,  stimu¬ 
lation  of  emotions  and  love  of  beauty,  ability  to  fill  in  the  details  of  the  story; 
and  the  power  to  express  the  meaning  and  spirit  of  the  selection  naturally  and 
pleasingly. 

The  following  books  deal  with  the  teaching  of  reading.  It  would  be  well  for 
the  teacher  to  purchase  at  least  two  or  three  of  these  books:  Arnold’s  “Reading 
and  How  to  Teach  It,’’  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Go.,  New  York);  Briggs  and  Coff¬ 
man’s  “Reading  in  the  Public  Schools’’  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago);  Klap- 
per’s  “Teaching  Children  to  Read,”  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  Chicago);  McMurry’s 
“Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading”  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston);  Clark’s 
“How  to  Teach  Reading  in  the  Public  School”  (Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  New 
York). 

First  Grade. 


The  best  authorities  agree  that  we  have  hitherto  given  too  much  time  to 
primary'  reading,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  subjects  more  important  to  children 
of  this  age.  The  first  year  of  school  life  should  be  given  to  the  child’s  “own 
experiences,”  to  use  Prof.  Huey’s  expression.  Nature  study,  hand-work,  story- 
telhng,  memorizing  poetry,  conversation  about  the  child’s  home  interests,  and 
group  games  are  the  most  important  means  of  leading  the  child  from  home  life 
to  the  larger,  more  organized  life  of  the  school.  Reading  in  the  first  year  should 
be  subordinated  to  real  life.  For  example,  directious  for  hand-w'ork  and  for  play¬ 
ing  games  may  be  written  on  the  blackboard  instead  of  being  given  orally.  In 
this  way  children  learn  that  reading  is  a  meaus  of  communicating  thought,  since 
they  cannot  do  the  desired  thing  unless  they  can  read  the  directions.  This 
habit  of  connecting  action  with  reading  should  begin  with  the  first  school  year. 

Children  should  learn  in  the  first  year  the  printed  forms  of  from  three  to  five 
hundred  words  used  in  their  daily  speef'h.  Their  ears  and  vocal  organs  should  be 
trained  to  recognize  separate  sounds  recurring  in  familiar  words,  for  example: 
d  in  “dog,”  “dark,”  “do,”  and  “down,”  should  be  recognized  as  the  same  sound 
occurring  in  different  words. 

Begin  reading  in  the  first  grade  by  reading  to  children,  telling  stories,  and 
having  them  memorize  some  verses.  All  these  activities  prepare  the  way  for 
reading.  The  first  reading  by  children  must  be  based  on  the  children’s  own 
activities  and  interests.  Begin  with  action  words  and  the  names  of  familiar 
objects  in  the  room.  In  every  ca.se  connect  the  written  symbol  with  the  action 


37 


or  object  it  represents.  The  teacher  calls  Frank  to  her  and  whispers  to  him 
“run.”  She  then  says,  “This  tells  the  secret  I  told  Frank.  I  said  to  him  ‘Run’ 
And  she  writes  the  word  on  the  board.  Other  devices  for  connecting  the  word 
with  the  action  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher.  To  teach  the  names  of 
objects  she  may  write  the  name  of  “Sand,”  “Book,”  “Ball,”  “Window,”  etc., 
and  pin  the  name  on  the  object  it  represents,  so  that  these  words  will  be  learned 
by  association. 

For  the  first  week  or  two  children’s  reading  may  well  be  limited  to  the  inter¬ 
pretation  of  action  words  and  names  of  objects.  It  is  not  necessary  at  this  time 
for  children  to  do  much  oral  reading.  Silent  reading  must  precede  oral  in  every 
case.  Much  bad  reading  is  caused  by  insisting  on  oral  reading  from  the  first. 

After  children  have  learned  to  act  in  response  to  written  symbols  (for  example, 
“Throw  the  ball,”  “Catch  Tom,”  “Close  the  door”)  continue  reading  by  using 
the  rhymes  children  have  memorized.  Write  on  the  board  a  rhyme  that  does  not 
contain  unusual  words.  Suppose  this  rhyme  is  selected : 

“This  little  pig  went  to  market. 

This  little  pig  staid  at  home. 

This  little  pig  had  roast  meat. 

This  little  pig  had  none. 

This  little  pig  cried  ‘wee,  wee,  wee, 

I  can’t  find  my  way  home.’  ” 


Let  the  children  say  the  rhyme  over,  counting  their  fingers  for  the  pigs  as 
they  say  it.  Then  tell  one  child  to  “read”  the  first  line  as  you  write  it  on  the 
board.  Call  on  another  child  to  read  the  next  line,  and  so  on.  The  children  are 
thus  really  reading,  although  they  do  not  know  the  separate  words.  The  ap¬ 
proach  to  reading  is  easy  and  natural,  not  painful  and  artificial  as  it  often  is  when 
words  are  built  up  from  their  sounds  or  letters. 

Have  words  from  the  rhyme  written  on  cards.  Select  only  the  words  children 
will  be  apt  to  use  again,  as  “this,”  “little,”  “pig,”  “went,”  “staid,”  “home,” 
“cried,”  “me.”  Hold  up  the  card  for  “this”  and  ask  the  children  to  find  a  word 
like  it  on  the  board.  Ask  what  the  word  says.  Do  the  same  with  the  other 
cards.  WTien  a  child  hesitates,  ask  him  to  say  over  the  rhyme  until  he  comes  to 
that  word.  He  thus  learns  to  rely  on  himself.  Play  a  game  to  see  who  can  find 
and  call  most  words.  Continue  work  of  this  kind  with  memorized  rhymes  until 
children  have  built  up  a  word  list  they  can  recognize  at  sight.  Be  careful  to  vary 
the  work  enough  to  keep  up  interest  in  it.  It  is  a  mistake  to  stay  long  on  one 
rhyme.  Begin  daily  word  drills  in  the  form  of  games,  as  varied  in  character  as 
possible.  Have  these  drills  at  a  different  time  from  the  reading  lesson. 

As  the  children  learn  words,  combine  these  words  with  others  to  make  sen¬ 
tences  about  familiar  things.  Write  a  sentence  on  the  board  and  ask  the  children 
to  read  it.  Let  children  whisper  sentences  to  the  teacher,  who  will  then  write 
“a  secret”  on  the  board  for  children  to  guess.  There  is  a  real  motive  for  reading 
in  this  kind  of  work.  For  example,  the  teacher  will  say,  “Who  will  tell  something 
he  saw  on  the  way  to  school?”  “  Come  and  whisper  it  to  me.”  Billy  comes  up 
and  whispers,  “  I  saw  a  horse.”  The  teacher  says,  “See  if  you  can  tell  what  Billy 
saw.”  She  writes  the  sentence  on  the  board,  and  tells  the  children  any  new 
word  that  they  have  not  had  before — “horse,”  for  instance.  Now  she  asks  other 
children  to  read  the  sentence  and  tell  what  Billy  saw.  Skill  must  be  used  to  avoid 
too  wide  a  range  of  words. 


38 


Blackboard  work  and  word  drills  should  be  continued  for  some  time — one  or 
two  months — before  taking  up  a  book.  There  is  really  a  saving  of  time  in  post¬ 
poning  the  use  of  a  book.  When  the  book  is  first  used,  the  children  should  be 
taught  how  to  hold  it  and  to  turn  the  pages.  Do  not  allow  them  to  hold  the 
book  closer  than  fifteen  inches  from  the  eyes,  because  a  large  amount  of  eye- 
strain  is  the  result  of  close  reading.  From  the  beginning  children  should  learn 
to  read  to  the  class,  not  exclusively  to  the  teacher.  They  should  share  their 
thought  with  their  audience,  and  to  do  this  the  book  must  not  be  held  between 
the  child  and  the  audience. 

Phonics:  Rhymes  make  a  good  introduction  to  phonics.  Through  them 
children  notice  similar  sounds  in  words,  and  learn  to  build  up  “families”  of  words. 
“Jill,”  “hill;”  “down,”  “crown,”  may  easily  lead  to  other  words  of  similar 
sound.  The  phonic  work  of  the  first  year  should  be  informal,  and  should  consist 
of  games.  For  example,  pronounce  “dog,”  “did,”  “Dot,”  and  ask  children  to 
tell  you  other  words  that  begin  in  the  same  way.  Then  write  “d”  on  the  board, 
giving  the  sound  and  asking  children  to  give  the  sound  also.  (Be  careful  to  give 
the  correct  sound — not  “duh.”)  Take  up  all  the  initial  consonants  in  this  way. 
This  phonic  drill  or  play  should  come  with  the  word-drill,  not  with  the  reading 
lesson.  Little  more  than  this  should  be  attempted  in  phonics  the  first  year. 
Indeed,  many  authorities  think  phonics  should  not  be  begun  until  later,  because 
it  holds  the  child  to  an  analysis  that  taxes  him  too  much.  However,  if  the  work 
is.  taken  up  as  play  rather  than  as  uninteresting  drill,  this  objection  would  be 
overcome. 

Children  should  know  the  alphabet  by  the  end  of  the  year.  Teach  it  by  rhymes, 
pictures,  and  songs. 

Complete  Wheeler’s  Primer  and  First  Reader  and  two  or  three  of  the  following 
supplementary  readers  in  this  grade: 

Riverside  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

The  Child’s  World  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Free  and  Treadwell’s  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Elson’s  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

Art-Literature  Primer  and  First  Reader. 


Second  Grade. 

Complete  Wheeler’s  Second  Reader  during  this  year.  In  addition  have  the 
children  read  three  or  four  Second  Readers  in  the  series  listed  under  first  grade 
work.  Lucia’s  “Peter  and  Polly  in  Summer”  (American  Book  Co.,  Cincinnati) 
is  a  series  of  excellent  stories  for  this  grade;  it  is  especially  good  for  rural  schools. 
Perrault’s  “Tales  of  Mother  Goose”  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New  York)  furnishes 
nursery  tales  for  this  and  the  third  grade. 

Do  not  feel  obliged  to  teach  the  lessons  in  the  order  in  which  they  come  in  the 
book,  but  rearrange  them  to  suit  circumstances.  For  example,  teach  the  lesson 
on  page  70  just  after  the  pussy  willows  have  appeared  in  the  spring.  Teach 
the  lesson  on  page  91  at  Christmas  time.  Teach  the  lesson  on  page  174  at  a  time 
when  the  children  need  to  apply  this  lesson  to  their  own  life. 

In  general,  it  is  well  not  to  read  in  one  book  until  it  is  finished,  but  to  change 
from  one  book  to  another,  selecting  the  lessons  that  will  fit  best  with  the  seasons, 
the  interests  of  the  children,  their  other  work,  etc. 

Emphasize  this  year  work  in  phonics,  acquiring  of  new  words,  ability  to  read 
rapidly,  to  read  aloud  intelligently  and  expressively.  Care  must  be  taken  in 


39 


assigning  lessons,  so  that  the  pupils  may  have  their  interest  aroused  in  the  sub¬ 
jects  and  may  be  put  on  the  hunt  for  the  ideas.  For  instance,  in  assigning  the 
lesson  on  page  37  it  would  be  well  to  begin  by  asking  the  children  if  they  have 
ever  seen  their  shadow.  Ask  them  what  makes  the  shadow,  where  it  stays  at 
night,  why  it  is  taller  at  some  times  than  at  others,  and  other  questions  that 
will  touch  on  the  details  of  the  poem.  Finally  you  tell  the  children  that  you  are 
going  to  read  to  them  a  poem  that  tells  what  a  child  said  about  his  shadow. 
Always  take  some  time  in  assigning  a  lesson,  and  always  prepare  your  assignment 
at  least  a  day  in  advance,  so  that  you  may  know  just  how  you  are  going  to  intro¬ 
duce  the  selections. 

In  the  recitation  it  is  best  not  to  ask  the  child  to  read  one  paragraph  or  one 
sentence,  because  perhaps  that  is  not  a  natural  stopping  place.  You  had  better 
study  the  lesson  with  the  children  and  divide  it  up  into  sections,  then  ask  each 
child  to  read  a  section. 

Dramatize  some  of  the  lessons.  The  story  on  page  59  serves  well  for  this 
work.  Have  the  lesson  studied  first,  then  have  the  story  retold  orally.  Now  ask 
for  five  pupils  to  take  the  part  of  Red  Riding  Hood,  her  mother,  grandmother, 
the  wolf,  the  hunter.  Have  Red  Riding  Hood’s  mother  send  the  little  girl  to  her 
grandmother’s — ^which  is  over  in  the  corner  of  the  room, — have  the  wolf  meet 
her  on  the  way,  let  the  characters  talk  as  they  would  in  a  real  story.  Play  the 
whole  story  this  way. 

The  teacher  should  tell  and  read  many  good  stories  to  the  children  in  this 
grade.  This  provides  interest  and  entertainment,  gives  good  material  for  language 
conversations,  and  inspires  a  desire  to  read. 

Have  the  children  commit  many  poems  to  memor^^  They  should  be  asked  to 
commit  only  those  poems  which  they  have  studied  and  understand  fairly  well. 

Third  Grade. 

Read  Wheeler’s  Third  Reader  in  this  grade.  Read  also  three  or  four  Third 
Readers  in  the  series  listed  under  first  grade  work.  Have  these  supplementary 
books  bought’  near  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  change  from  one  to  the  other, 
as  you  think  best. 

Continue  phonic  work.  The  common  diacritical  marks  should  be  learned  in 
connection  with  the  reading  and  spelling. 

Give  persistent  practice  in  reading  aloud.  Insist  on  distinct  enunciation. 
Break  up  habits  of  reading  too  fast  or  too  slow,  too  loud  or  too  low.  Do  not  let 
any  reading  pass  that  does  not  express  the  meaning.  This  implies  that  before  a 
pupil  is  called  upon  to  read  aloud,  the  teacher  must  have  satisfied  himself,  by 
questioning,  that  he  understands  what  he  is  trying  to  express.  If  the  pupil  has 
formed  the  habit  of  reading  only  one  word  at  a  time,  ask  him  to  read  each  sen¬ 
tence  through  silently  before  he  reads  aloud.  All  unfamiliar  and  difficult  ideas 
must  be  learned  before  the  oral  reading  begins. 

Very  often  the  story  in  the  lesson  will  not  tell  all  the  details,  but  will  leave  them 
to  be  inferred.  This  is  especially  true  in  poetry.  The  teacher  must  be  sure  that 
these  details  are  understood. 

Continue  dramatization.  Ask  the  children  to  reproduce  orally  some  of  the 
stories  read,  but  do  not  have  this  done  too  frequently.  (See  Language  and 
Composition,  Third  Grade,  page  47.) 

Teach  the  spelling  of  all  the  useful  new  words.  It  is  not  necessary  to  require 
the  children  to  learn  the  spelling  of  all  the  proper  nouns  or  the  unusual  words. 


40 


Keep  in  mind  the  difference  between  informational  reading  matter  and  litera¬ 
ture.  (See  page  33.)  The  teacher  should  study  each  lesson  before  she  assigns  it, 
that  she  may  know  whether  she  is  going  to  present  it  as  literature  or  as  reading 
matter. 

Occasionally  have  a  “sight”  lesson.  In  this  you  introduce  the  subject  as 
usual;  but  instead  of  assigning  the  subject  for  the  next  day,  you  take  it  up  at 
once.  The  children  read  silently  through  the  lesson  as  fast  as  possible.  Then 
the  teacher  asks  questions  until  she  is  sure  the  pupils  understand  the  thought. 
They  then  read  aloud.  This  plan  encourages  rapid  reading,  and  reading  for  the 
main  outline. 

Have  the  children  learn  some  poems  by  heart. 

Fourth  Grade. 

Read  Wheeler’s  Fourth  Reader  in  this  grade.  Read  also  three  or  four  Fourth 
Readers  in  the  series  listed  under  First  Grade  work.  Farm  Life  Readers,  Book 
Four  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,)  is  especially  good  for  rural  children.  “Robin¬ 
son  Crusoe”  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.)  is  an  excellent  book  to  read 
in  class. 

Use  care  in  assigning  the  reading  lesson.  Train  in  rapid  silent  reading.  To 
do  this  have  much  sight-reading,  limit  the  time  for  the  preparation  of  lessons, 
and  encourage  much  home  reading  of  library  books.  Occasionally  do  not  have 
the  lesson  read  but  merely  retold.  Let  the  children  see  that  silent  reading  is 
very  important,  since  it  is  more  rapid  than  oral  reading,  and  since  they  will  be 
expected  to  read  silently  more  than  orally  when  they  are  out  of  school.  Teach 
the  children  not  to  move  their  lips  when  they  read  silently. 

The  pupils  should  be  thoroughly  trained  in  dividing  a  lesson  into  sections. 
This  is  done  by  having  the  child  state  the  substance  of  each  paragraph  before  or 
after  he  reads,  or  make  an  outline  of  the  story,  or  reproduce  orally  the  essentials. 
In  the  lesson  on  page  74,  for  example,  the  story  naturally  divides  itself  into  the 
following  parts:  First  five  paragraphs,  the  father’s  journey;  next  six  paragraphs, 
the  mirror;  next  two  paragraphs,  passage  of  time;  next  four  paragraphs,  death 
of  the  mother;  remaining  paragraphs,  the  daughter  and  the  mirror.  Every 
lesson  has  its  outline,  and  the  lessons  are  not  well  learned  until  the  main  points 
in  the  outline  are  discovered.  Correlate  this  study  with  the  making  of  out¬ 
lines  in  the  composition  work.  (See  page  49.) 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  that  some  lessons  are  to  be  read  rapidly  and  for 
the  story,  while  others  are  to  be  read  slowly  and  for  other  points.  For  example, 
the  poem  on  page  270  must  first  be  read  through  for  the  complete  thought,  then 
must  be  re-examined  more  carefully,  while  the  lesson  on  page  252  should  be 
read  quite  rapidly. 

Connect  the  lessons  with  the  work  in  other  branches.  The  lesson  on  page  257, 
for  example,  \^41l  go  well  with  a  history  lesson.  Be  sure  also  that  the  selection 
fits  in  well  with  the  season  of  the  year.  For  instance,  the  poem  on  page  218  should 
be  taught  in  late  Autumn.  Of  course,  the  lesson  may  be  chosen  occasionally 
because  it  affords  a  contrast  to  the  season  or  situation. 

Continue  memorizing.  Many  teachers  have  the  idea  that  only  those  selections 
which  contain  moral  truths  or  practical  precepts  should  be  committed  to  memory. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  beautiful  poetry  should  be  memorized,  whether  it  has  any 
direct  moral  lesson  or  not.  The  selection  on  page  283,  wath  its  animation  and 


41 


optimism,  and  its  appeal  to  the  imagination,  should  be  stored  away  in  the  mind 
as  well  as  the  selection  on  page  288,  with  its  definite  moral  message. 

Watch  the  children  in  their  reading  in  all  their  textbooks.  For  instance,  in  the 
arithmetic  lessons,  have  the  examples  read  intelligently  before  the  solution  Ls 
attempted. 

Dramatize  a  story  ever>^  week  or  two.  Be  careful  to  select  stories  that  lend 
themselves  to  dramatic  effects. 

It  is  well  to  read  in  the  fourth  grade,  and  in  each  grade  beyond,  one  long  story 
in  the  class  each  year.  “Robinson  Crusoe”  is  good  for  this  grade.  Assign  two 
or  three  chapters  at  a  time;  then  in  the  recitation  have  the  story  in  these  chapters 
told  orally,  and  a  few  paragraphs  read  orally.  Remember  that  the  emphasis  in 
the  last  part  of  this  year  and  in  all  the  work  in  reading  to  follow,  should  be  placed 
upon  literature  rather  than  upon  mechanical  reading. 

Fifth  Grade. 

Texts:  Elson’s  Grammar  School  Reader,  Book  I,  and  Wheeler’s  Fifth  Reader. 
Read  also  the  Riverside  Fifth  Reader  and  Free  and  Treadwell’s  Fifth  Reader. 
Farm  Life  Reader,  Book  V  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York)  is  especially  good 
for  country  children. 

Many  of  the  selections  in  this  book  are  difficult — so  difficult  that  the  teacher 
must  be  constantly  on  her  guard  lest  her  pupils  miss  the  point  of  some  splendid 
story  or  poem.  You  can  usually  tell  whether  the  pupils  understand  by  the  way 
they  read.  If  they  have  failed  to  perceive  the  meaning,  you  should  question  them 
until  they  do  perceive  it;  then,  have  them  read  again. 

When  the  children  read  poetry,  insist  that  they  bring  out  the  thought,  regard¬ 
less  of  the  rhythm.  There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  make  a  pause  at  the  end  of 
a  line.  Sometimes  this  spoils  the  sense. 

After  the  children  have  learned  to  appreciate  a  selection,  it  is  well  to  call  their 
attention  to  the  author  and  the  other  selections  of  his  that  the  children  have 
read.  It  might  be  well  occasionally  to  read  all  the  selections  of  one  author  in 
succession.  Refer  the  children  to  library  books  by  the  same  authors. 

Sixth  Grade. 

Complete  “Elson’s  Grammar  School  Literature,”  Book  Two.  Read  also  the 
Riverside  Sixth  Reader.  Some  good  long  stories  are:  “Some  Merry  Adventures 
of  Robin  Hood”  (Charles Scribner’s  Sons, New  York);  “Wood  Folk  at  School” 
(Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York);  “Pinnocchio”  (Ginn  &  Go.,  New  York). 

Elson’s  books  are  full  of  most  excellent  literature.  The  teacher  should  remem¬ 
ber  that  literature  does  not  exist  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  informa¬ 
tion,  but  of  arousing  and  guiding  the  emotions;  and  she  should  be  dissatisfied 
with  any  literature  lesson  that  does  not  accomplish  this.  Of  course,  there  is 
often  decided  intellectual  value  in  the  selection,  but  that  should  come  after  the 
feelings  have  been  stirred. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  brief,  specific  directions  for  teaching  a  literature  lesson. 
(The  teacher  should  show  the  children  how  to  use  the  lesson  helps  in  the  readers. 
These  are  very  valuable  as  they  direct  the  children’s  attention  to  the  important 
phases  of  the  study.  Every  teacher  should  have  the  manual  that  goes  with  the 
readers.)  The  usual  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows: 


42 


First,  assignment.  In  the  assignment  the  teacher  should  ask  questions  de¬ 
signed  to  connect  what  the  pupil  already  knows  with  that  which  the  lesson  has 
to  give.  . 

Second,  preparation  of  the  lesson  by  pupils,  (a)  The  pupils  should  be 
trained  to  read  silently  through  the  whole  selection  rather  rapidly  in  order  to 
understand  the  principal  thought,  the  predominant  emotion,  and  the  different 
sections,  (b)  Then  they  should  silently  study  the  selection  more  carefully 
sentence  by  sentence,  trying  to  appreciate  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  words, 
to  see  the  pictures,  and  fill  in  details  intentionally  omitted  by  the  author,  to 
understand  the  figurative  language,  etc.  If  the  words  are  familiar  but  evidently 
have  unusual  meanings  to  the  pupil,  try  to  infer  the  meaning  from  the  context. 
If  the  words  are  entirely  unfamiliar  or  the  pupil  cannot  get  the  meaning  from 
the  study  of  the  whole  sentences,  he  should  look  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary, 
(c)  The  pupil  should  then  read  aloud,  trying  to  bring  out  the  main  thought, 
the  significance  of  the  details,  and  the  spirit  or  mood  of  the  selection,  in  a  natural, 
intelligent  and  musical  manner. 

Third,  recitation,  (a)  The  teacher  asks  questions  bearing  on  the  main 
thought  and  the  details,  designed  to  show  the  pupils’  knowledge  and  apprecia¬ 
tion,  to  see  if  the  pupil  has  filled  in  the  outlines,  understands  the  figurative 
language  and  unusual  words,  etc.  She  covers  the  same  ground  that  the  pupils 
have  gone  over  in  their  preparation,  though,  of  course,  she  will  bring  up  points 
the  children  had  not  thought  of,  and  will  give  suggestions  that  will  lead  to  new 
ideas,  (b)  After  a  frank  and  free  discussion,  the  poem  should  be  read  aloud. 
Sometimes  the  teacher  reads  first,  sometimes  the  pupils;  but  the  teacher  should 
always  read  at  least  a  part  of  the  lesson.  The  oral  reading  should  show  apprecia¬ 
tion  and  understanding,  and  should  be  natural  and  expressive.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  oral  reading.  Do  not  encourage  “elocutionary”  reading; 
insist  rather  on  simple,  natural,  appreciative  and  pleasing  expression  of  the 
thoughts  and  emotions,  and  remember  that  the  oral  reading,  if  it  is  to  be  really 
expressive,  must  come  after  intelligent  study;  the  children  cannot  express  the 
meaning  until  they  know  the  meaning  to  express. 

Fourth,  application.  The  selection  should  not  be  allowed  to  sink  out  of  sight 
in  the  children’s  minds.  It  should  be  used  in  some  way.  (a)  It  may  be  memo¬ 
rized.  (b)  It  may  be  assigned  for  composition  or  language  work,  (c)  It 
may  be  used  to  illustrate  or  explain  a  lesson  in  some  other  subject,  (d)  It  may 
be  applied  to  some  incident  of  the  school  or  home  life,  (e)  It  may  be  referred 
to  later  in  studying  other  literature. 

A  slightly  different  method  must  be  followed  in  the  teaching  and  studying 
of  selections  that  are  too  long  to  be  finished  in  one  recitation.  In  this  case, 
the  teacher  should  assign  a  chapter  or  two  at  a  time,  in  order  to  get  through 
the  selection  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  preparation  and  recitation  should  be 
concerned  with  questions  and  discussions  as  to  the  story,  what  may  be  expected 
to  happen  next,  the  characters,  and  how  they  develop  and  react  on  each  other, 
the  connection  and  significance  of  incidents,  the  mystery  and  suspense,  etc. 
Then  when  the  selection  is  finished,  it  should  be  reviewed  rapidly  to  get  the  entire 
story,  the  general  theme  and  aim,  the  outline  of  the  plot,  the  lesson,  the  general 
characteristics,  the  characters,  etc.  The  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read 
many  library  books,  and  to  pursue  the  same  plan  in  this  reading  that  they  do  in 
class  study. 

If  the  children  have  kept  up  the  dramatization,  they  should  be  able  to  give 
quite  ambitious  plays  in  the  sixth  grade.  The  girls  can  make  the  costumes 


43 

and  the  boys  can  provide  the  “properties” — that  is,  the  objects  needed  in  the 
play.  Invite  the  parents  in  occasionally.  Some  work  of  this  sort  will  help  the 
children  to  study  and  appreciate  the  characters  and  action  in  all  that  they  read. 

Some  magazines,  such  as  the  Youth’s  Companion  (Perry  Mason  Co.,  Boston) 
and  “Saint  Nicholas”  (The  Century  Co.,  New  York)  should  be  in  the  school 
room.  Perhaps  some  subscriber  in  the  neighborhood  will  lend  them  to  the  school, 
after  they  have  been  read.  Encourage  the  children  to  read  these  silently,  and 
occasionally  have  children  read  aloud  interesting  stories,  or  articles  or  poems. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND  GRAMMAR. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Aims  of  the  Course. 

The  aims  of  the  course  in  language  and  composition  are: 

1 .  To  train  the  child  to  examine  subjects  within  his  comprehension ;  to  choose, 
reject,  and  organize  his  material  on  these  subjects;  to  present  in  speech  and 
writing  his  thoughts  on  these  subjects  in  an  orderly,  pleasing,  and  effective 
manner. 

2:  To  train  the  child  in  desirable  language  habits.  Some  of  these  habits  are: 

(a)  The  habit  of  speaking  and  writing  with  ease  and  pleasure  and  with 
clearness  and  correctness. 

(b'>  The  habit  of  using  vigorous,  idiomatic,  expressive  words  arranged 
in  free,  natural  sentences,  which,  in  turn,  are  arranged  in  compact,  unified 
paragraphs. 

(c)  The  habit  of  taking  care  that  his  language  be  effective  and  of  taking 
pride  in  his  linguistic  power. 

•  (d)  The  habit  of  using  mechanically  the  various  formal  elements  of 

speaking  and  writing;  such  as  correct  pronunciation,  distinct  enunciation, 
spelling,  paragraphing,  punctuating,  etc. 

General  Outline.* 

It  is  obvious  that  since  the  child  is  using  the  language  from  the  time  he  enters 
school,  training  in  language  must  be  started  at  once.  During  the  first  two  years, 
however,  the  language  work  should  not  be  given  a  special  period  on  the  daily 
program,  but  should  be  connected  with  the  other  work  of  the  school,  especially 
with  reading  and  literature.  Throughout  the  entire  course,  language  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  the  other  work  of  the  school.  It  is  a  serious  mistake 
to  give  the  pupils  the  impression  that  the  language  work  is  completed  when  the 
language  period  is  over.  Encourage  free,  vigorous  conversation  in  connection 
with  all  the  branches.  Teach  the  children  in  all  their  school  work  to  organize 
their  thoughts  and  insist  upon  their  using  clear,  definite,  and  correct  words. 
This  incidental  language  work  is  often  the  most  educative,  since  it  connects  the 
language  more  closely  with  the  child’s  life.  In  the  third  year  a  separate  period 
should  be’  given  to  language,  though  the  pupils  should  not  use  a  text.  From 
the  fourth  year  on  the  pupils  use  the  text  and  have  a  definite  period. 

In  the  lower  grades  composition  work  is  largely  oral  and  should  be  combined 
with  the  regular  language  work.  From  the  third  grade  on  some  of  the  language 
periods  should  be  used  for  composition  work. 

No  text  in  composition  work  should  be  used  until  the  seventh  grade.  In  this 
and  the  eighth  grade  the  pupil  should  use  the  section  on  composition  writing  in 
part  two  of  the  second  book  of  Kimball’s  “Elementary  English.” 


•A  definite  outline  is  given  in  connection  with  the  work  of  each  school  year. 


45 


Since  the  work  of  the  first  three  years  does  not  provide  for  a  text  book,  the 
teacher  must  suggest  the  material  and  direct  the  -work.  In  order  to  do  this  she 
should  have  two  or  three  language  books  from  which  to  get  suggestions,  ideas, 
plans,  and  exercises.  These  books  will  be  valuable  also  for  work  above  the  third 
grade,  since  they  will  provide  material  for  supplementary  work.  The  following 
language  books  are  suggested: 

Live  Language  Lessons.  Two  books.  University  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 
(Especially  good  for  country  and  village  teachers.) 

Primary  Language  Lessons.  One  book.  American  Book  Company,  Cin¬ 
cinnati, 

Studies  in  English,  The  Language  Book.  Row,  Peterson  &  Co..  Chicago. 

Guide  Books  to  English,  Two  books.  Silver,  Burdette  and  Company,  New 
York. 

The  teacher  should  have  and  study  two  or  three  good  books  on  the  teaching  of 
language  and  composition.  Teaching  in  these  subjects  is  so  important  and  so 
difficult  that  the  teacher  needs  all  the  assistance  she  can  secure.  The  following 
are  suggested: 

Barnes — English  in  the  Country  Schools.  Row,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

McMurry — Special  Method  in  Language.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Klapper — The  Teaching  of  English.  D.  Appleton  &  Co,,  New  York. 

First  Grade. 

The  language  and  composition  work  of  this  year  should  be  almost  entirely  oral. 
All  the  writing  that  should  be  done  is  the  copying  of  words  and  sentences,  memo¬ 
rized  selections,  etc.,  marks  of  punctuation  being  copied  without  explanation. 
Spelling  may  be  copied,  and  occasionally  a  sentence  may  be  dictated  by  the 
teacher  and  written  by  the  pupils.  Do  not  expect  any  original  composition  this 
year. 

The  basis  of  this  year’s  work  should  be  infonnal  conversation.  Nature  study, 
pictures,  literature  read,  stories  told  by  the  teacher,  the  interests  and  experiences 
of  daily  school  and  home  life,  the  seasons  and  holidays  will  furnish  sufficient 
material.  The  teacher  should  try  to  get  the  chil dren  to  talk  freely,  easily,  naturally 
and  correctly  on  the  topics  brought  up. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  such  sentences  as:  “John  and  me  want  to  play.” 
“Us  boys  will  go.”  “There  is  two  birds  Qn  the  tree.”  “  I  ain’t  got  my  lesson,” 
“He  has  went.”  Correct  these  and  similar  blunders  without  explanation,  but 
always  give  the  correct  form  and  have  the  child  repeat  it.  Enlarge  the  child’s 
vocabulary  by  suggesting  a  better  word  instead  of  the  one  he  has  used.  Make 
these  conversations  informal  and  pleasant.  Always  base  them  on  topics  interest¬ 
ing  to  the  children. 

Some  reproduction  work  can  be  done.  The  teacher  tells  or  reads  an  interesting 
nursery  tale,  such  as  “The  Three  Bears.”  The  children  ask  and  answer  questions 
about  the  story  until  it  is  well  understood.  Then  they  tell  the  story  as  effectively 
and  dramatically  as  possible.  Very  little  criticism  of  the  language  should  be 
allowed,  since  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  reproduce  with  confidence  and 
pleasure.  Mistakes  in  accuracy  of  reproduction  and  the  most  serious  errors  in 
language  should  be  pointed  out  after  the  story  has  been  retold. 

Some  of  the  simpler  stories  told  or  read  should  be  dramatized.  Some  of  the 
Mother  Goose  Jingles  and  some  fables  furnish  good  material. 


46 


Second  Grade. 


Oral  English  should  be  the  basis  of  this  year’s  work.  Continue  the  conversa¬ 
tions  as  in  first  year,  based  on  literature,  pictures,  nature  study,  field  excursions, 
games,  activities,  etc.  Ask  questions  that  involve  several  related  sentences  in  the 
answer,  such  as,  “How  do  you  make  a  paw-paw  whistle?”  “How  do  you  sweep 
a  room?”  “How  do  you  play  prisoner’s  base?”  Train  the  children  in  sticking  to 
the  story,  in  proper  position  while  standing,  in  speaking  directly  to  the  other 
children  instead  of  the  teacher,  in  distinct  enunciation  and  easy  conversational 
tone.  Incidentally  correct  such  errors  as  “  I  can  write  good,”  “Mother  learned 
me  my  lessons,”  “John  don’t  know  how  to  play,”  “I  taken  my  slate  home.” 
Train  in  the  use  of  “shall”  and  “will,”  “may”  and  “can,”  the  common  irregular 
verbs,  etc.,  but  without  attempting  to  explain  the  finer  points  or  the  grammatical 
rules  involved. 

Watch  closely  the  children’s  enunciation  and  pronunciation.  Such  words  as 
“git,”  “ketch,”  “probly”  need  especial  care,  since  the  children  often  hear  the 
incorrect  forms  more  frequently  than  the  right  forms. 

Try  to  enlarge  the  pupils’  vocabulary.  Teach  them  to  distinguish  between 
easy  synonyms. 

Continue  oral  reproduction  of  stories.  Encourage  the  children  to  retell  stories 
they  have  learned  at  home.  Train  the  children  to  make  up  and  tell  simple  stories 
based  on  pictures.  Train  them  to  tell  the  essentials  of  stories  they  read,  leaving 
out  details. 

Dramatize,  as  in  the  first  grade. 

Study  a  number  of  fables  with  the  children,  and  encourage  them  to  make  up 
simple  fables  of  their  own  and  tell  them  orally.  Here  is  a  fable  told  by  a  second 
grade  pupil:  “Once  a  rabbit  was  running  away  from  some  dogs  and  he  wanted 
to  get  into  a  hole  in  some  rocks.  But  some  dirt  had  got  into  the  hole.  He  got 
into  another  hole  and  got  away  from  the  dogs.  Then  he  said,  ‘Tomorrow  I  will 
go  and  dig  that  dirt  out,  so  I  can  get  in  the  next  time.’  But  the  next  day  he  forgot 
all  about  it.  A  few  days  after,  the  dogs  got  after  him  and  were  close  behind  him. 
He  ran  up  to  the  hole  and  could  not  get  in,  and  the  dogs  caught  him  before  he 
could  run  into  another  hole.  It  served  him  right  for  being  so  careless.” 

The  written  work  should  be  very  simple  in  this  grade.  Copying,  writing  from 
easy  dictation,  writing  of  spelling  lists  and  of  memory  selections  is  recommended. 
Some  simple  class  exercises  in  original  composing  should  be  worked  out.  For 
example,  the  teacher  asks  the  children  to  make  up  sentences  about  a  cow.  The 
pupils  present  such  sentences  as:  “The  cow  gives  milk;”  “The  cow  has  horns;” 
“The  cow  is  red;”  “The  cow  eats  grass.”  The  teacher  writes  these  on  the  board 
one  by  one.  Then  she  and  the  class  rearrange  the  sentences  in  their  natural 
order;  finally  the  pupils  copy  the  revised  work,  writing  all  the  sentences  in  one 
paragraph. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  the  use  of  capital  letters  at  beginning  of  sentences  and 
lines  of  poetry;  in  the  pronoun  I;  in  proper  nouns,  days  of  week,  names  of 
months.  The  following  marks  of  punctuation  should  be  taught:  period  and 
question  mark  at  ends  of  sentences;  period  after  initials  and  common  abbrevia¬ 
tions;  apostrophe  in  possessive  case.  Observe  the  use  of  these  marks  in  the 
readers. 

Have  the  children  start  a  composition  book  in  which  they  copy  their  finished 
work.  Provide  plenty  of  seat  work  in  writing,  basing  it  all  on  interesting  subjects. 


47 


Third  Grade. 

A  definite  language  period  should  now  be  assigned,  but  the  incidental  work  in 
language  should  be  continued.  The  teacher  should  outline  her  work  for  this 
class  at  least  a  week  ahead,  for  she  must  direct  the  children  orally  and  keep 
them  working  steadUy  at  some  definite  aim. 

The  work  should  still  be  largely  oral.  Continue  the  reproduction  of  stories, 
poems,  etc.  Children  should  be  asked  to  tell  the  other  children  about  books  they 
have  read,  sketching  the  story  and  giving  brief  character  descriptions  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  teacher. 

So  called  “oral  composition”  work  should  be  started  in  this  grade.  The 
teacher  should  assign  easy  subjects  to  the  pupils  such  as:  “How  to  plant  corn;” 
“What  I  saw  in  the  blacksmith’s  shop;”  “A  fishing  trip” — subjects  drawn,  in 
general,  from  the  actual  experience  of  the  pupils,  and  should  assist  the  children 
in  getting  their  thoughts  together.  The  pupils  prepare  talks  of  two  minutes  or 
more  on  these  topics,  then  speak  to  the  class.  Teacher  and  class  criticize  sympa¬ 
thetically  on  whether  the  subject  was  clearly  presented,  whether  the  points  were 
arranged  in  the  best  order,  whether  the  pupil  spoke  distinctly  and  used  correct 
English. 

Original  stories  based  on  pictures  should  be  told.  Occasionally  part  of  the  story 
may  be  told  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  be  asked  to  complete  it.  Pupils  in  this 
grade  should  be  taught  in  their  literature  lesson  to  study  the  arrangement  of 
incidents  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  up  to  the  important  point,  and  should  be  en¬ 
couraged  to  use  this  method  in  their  own  stories.  Imaginative  stories,  such  as 
fairy  stories,  Santa  Glaus  stories,  etc.,  stories  in  which  the  children  impersonate 
some  animal  or  object  are  good  for  this  grade.  Dramatization  should  be  con¬ 
tinued. 

In  all  this  oral  work  the  teacher  should  try  to  build  up  the  children’s  vocabu¬ 
lary  and  power  to  discriminate  between  words,  and  should  break  up  slovenly 
habits  of  speech  and  enunciation.  Care  must  be  taken  also  that  the  children  do 
not  form  the  habit  of  using  too  many  short,  disconnected  sentences,  or  long  sen¬ 
tences  the  clauses  of  which  are  joined  by  “and.”  However,  the  teacher  must 
take  heedTest  she  destroy  the  pupils’  naturalness  and  expressiveness  and  make 
them  too  conscious.  Close  watch  should  be  kept  on  the  children’s  language,  and 
kindly,  patient  criticisms  given  whenever  needed. 

The  written  work  of  this  year  should  be  of  two  kinds:  paragraphs  and 
letters. 

Toward  the  beginning  of  the  year  pupils  should  be  taught  to  write  brief  para¬ 
graphs  on  simple  topics,  such  as  those  assigned  for  oral  compositions.  The  teacher 
should  assign  the  topics  and  discuss  them  with  the  pupils,  showing  them  definitely 
how  to  plan  and  arrange  their  material.  Pupils  should  write  their  paragraphs 
in  school  with  pencil  and  the  next  day  should  read  their  paragraphs.  Teacher 
and  class  should  discuss  the  clearness  and  correctness,  the  expressiveness  and 
naturalness,  the  unity  and  coherence  of  the  composition.  As  much  time  as 
possible  should  be  spent  in  this  discussion.  Pupils  should  then  copy  the  para¬ 
graphs  with  pen  and  ink  in  their  permanent  composition  book.  Continue  this 
work  throughout  the  year.  The  teacher  must  always  assist  in  the  preparation 
and  discussion  of  the  paragraphs,  but  should  gradually  put  the  work  more  and 
more  upon  the  pupils.  The  topics  should  be  stories  and  explanations,  with  an 
occasional  description,  and  should  always  be  drawn  from  the  children’s  life  or 


48 


reading.  Study  the  paragraphs  in  reading  and  literature  lessons,  to  see  how 
authors  construct  paragraphs. 

Letter  writing  should  be  studied  this  year.  Have  the  children  write  letters 
of  one  paragraph  to  friends  and  relatives,  telling  them  of  happenings  of  current 
interest.  Whenever  possible,  have  these  letters  copied  after  discussion  and 
mailed  to  the  persons  addressed.  Insist  on  neatness,  legibility,  naturalness,  etc. 
Occasionally  read  a  model  letter,  that  the  children  may  learn  to  catch  the  spirit 
of  the  letter.  (An  excellent  book  for  this  purpose  is  “Letters  to  Children  Written 
by  Famous  People.”  Hinds  &  Noble,  New  York.  This  book  can  be  used  in  the 
third,  fourth  and  fifth  grades.) 

The  following  letter  is  poor.  It  lacks  unity  because  it  takes  up  too  many 
subjects;  and  it  lacks  coherence  because  the  sentences  are  disconnected. 

“Dear  Grandpa:  We  played  in  the  snow  yesterday.  Papa  took  me  to  town 
Saturday.  We  get  lots  of  milk  now.  I  like  to  go  to  school.  Our  telephone  waa 
broken  down,  but  it  is  fixed  up  now.  How  is  grandma?  We  are  all  well.  This- 
is  my  first  letter. 

Your  loving, 

Susie.” 


The  following  letter  is  much  better: 

“Dear  Grandpa:  We  have  been  having  good  times  this  week.  There  w^as  a 
big  snow  and  we  all  played  games  like  fox  and  geese,  snow  ball,  and  building 
snow  men.  Papa  brought  us  to  school  yesterday  on  our  sled.  I  tell  you  old 
Frank  and  Jerry  had  to  pull  hard  up  Greek  Hill,  for  the  snow  was  awful  deep. 
Don’t  you  think  this  is  a  good  letter  for  the  first  one? 

Your  grandson, 

William.” 


In  learning  to  write  paragraphs  children  must  learn  certain  forms.  They  must 
learn:  to  indent  the  first  line  of  the  paragraph  and  close  the  paragraph  wherever 
the  last  line  happens  to  fall;  to  divide  the  word  between  syllables  at  the  end 
of  the  line;  to  leave  a  wide  margin  at  the  left  of  the  sheet.  In  writing  letters  the 
pupils  should  be  taught  the  conventional  usages;  where  to  place  the  address 
of  the  writer  and  the  date,  how  to  address  the  correspondent,  how  and  where  ta 
write  the  complimentary  close  and  the  signature,  how  to  address  the  envelope. 

In  all  the  written  work  insist  on  correct  spelling  and  correct  grammatical 
usage.  Teach  punctuation:  simple  uses  of  the  comma,  the  dash,  hyphen, 
apostrophe,  quotation  marks.  Teach  simple  abbreviations:  “Mr.,”  “Mrs.,” 
“Rev.,”  “W.  Va.,”  “St,,”  “P.  S.”  Teach  simple  contractions:  “don’t,” 
“doesn’t,”  “isn’t,”  “wasn’t,”  “hasn’t,”  “can’t,”  “it’s,”  “I’m,”  etc. 

Have  some  writing  every  day  during  this  year.  Occasionally  assign  written 
work  in  connection  with  nature  study,  arithmetic,  literature;  and  insist  that  all 
written  work  be  done  neatly,  accurately  and  legibly. 


Fourth  Grade. 

This  year  for  the  first  time  the  pupils  use  a  text.  Book  One  of  Kimball’s- 
“Elementary  English”  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  fourth  grade  work 
should  complete  Part  One.  Do  not  attempt  to  take  the  lessons  in  their  order. 
So  arrange  them  that  the  oral  and  the  written  work  will  be  mingled  in  the  proper 
proportions.  “A  little  writing  every  day  and  not  too  much  any  day,”  is  the  ideal. 


49 


Pupils  that  have  been  trained  according  to  the  directions  given  for  the  first 
three  years  will  find  much  of  the  te*xt-book  work  of  the  fourth  year  a  good  review 
of  facts  already  learned.  Such  pupils  should  be  given  much  supplementary  work. 
In  fact,  the  teacher  must  consider  the  language  book  merely  as  a  guide  and  must 
constantly  bring  into  the  language  lesson  work  from  other  subjects,  and  from 
the  interests  and  activities  of  the  children.  Language  cannot  be  taught  from  any 
'book;  and  the  teacher  that  confines  herself  to  the  exercises  in  the  book  will  fail 
to  give  adequate  and  interesting  training  in  language. 

The  untrained  teacher  should  not  omit  many  of  the  lessons  from  the  book, 
though  she  may  omit  many  of  the  exercises.  Even  though  the  lessons  seem 
disconnected  with  language  work,  they  are  excellent  to  start  discussions  and 
get  the  children  to  thinking  and  talking;  and  that  is  the  basis  of  language  work. 
The  teacher  should  be  very  careful,  however,  to  make  the  lessons  alive  with 
interest.  She  should  never  assign  a  lesson  by  saying  merely:  “Take  the  next 
lesson.”  She  must  introduce  the  topic  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupils  will  be  able 
to  see  the  point  in  the  lesson,  to  know  what  they  are  expected  to  do. 

The  lessons  contain  directions  for  the  children;  but  they  cannot  follow  these 
directions  without  assistance.  The  teacher  must  not  confine  herself  to  the  di¬ 
rections  and  questions  provided  in  the  book;  she  must  add  suggestions  of  her 
own  based  on  her  knowledge  of  the  pupils’  experience.  Do  not  let  the  lessons 
be  merely  book  study.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  assign  the  lessons  without  reference 
to  the  book.  For  example,  in  lesson  86  (page  61)  the  teacher  can  start  the  con¬ 
versation  and  discussion  about  cows  without  asking  the  questions  in  the  book. 

Whether  the  suggestions  are  drawn  from  the  book  or  not,  the  oral  composition 
work  of  the  third  grade  should  be  continued.  The  pupils  may  now  make  notes 
from  which  to  speak.  The  topics  should  be  practical,  definite  and  vital.  Have 
children  repeat  stories  and  make  oral  reports  on  the  books  read. 

At  least  once  a  week  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  write  a  composition  of 
two  or  more  paragraphs  on  some  interesting  topic.  Most  of  these  should  be 
taken  from  life,  such  as:  “A  Trip  to  the  Fair,”  “How  to  Make  a  Sled,”  “My 
Grandfather’s  Home.”  Some  of  them  may  be  imaginative  subjects,  such  as  “The 
Autobiography  of  a  Penny,”  “A  Trip  to  the  Moon,”  “Wdiat  the  School  Bell 
Saw.”  If  the  teacher  can  secure  inexpensive  pictures,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
the  children  paste  them  in  their  composition  books  and  write  descriptions  and 
stories  about  them. 

During  this  year  the  children  should  be  taught  to  construct  simple  outlines 
before  they  begin  to  write.  The  text  provides  excellent  directions  for  outlining; 
see  lessons  7,  9,  11,  32,  etc.  Each  division  of  the  outline  should  represent  one 
paragraph  in  the  composition.  If  the  pupils  do  not  make  an  outline  before  they 
begin  to  write,  they  will  not  plan  the  work  logically  and  definitely,  will  leave 
out  important  points  and  bring  in  unimportant  ones.  In  criticizing  this  work 
the  teacher  should  be  judicious  and  sympathetic,  calling  attention  to  the  grossest 
errors,  but  at  the  same  time  encouraging  the  children  to  express  themselves 
easily  and  freely.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  criticize  only  one  type  of  error  in  each 
group  of  compositions.  Show  the  children  how  to  criticize  their  own  work. 

Continue  the  work  in  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs.  These  have  much  of 
the  educative  value  of  the  long  composition  and  are  more  convenient  as  units  of 
writing.  In  this  grade  begin  to  train  the  pupils  in  the  use  of  the  “  topic  sentence;” 
the  sentence  placed  near  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph,  which  tells  or  suggests 
the  substance  of  the  whole  paragraph. 


50 


Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  consult  the  dictionary  to  look  up  the  spelling, 
pronunciation  and  meaning  of  words.  The  teacher  must  show  the  children  how 
to  find  words,  to  interpret  the  abbreviations,  etc.  It  would  be  well  to  have 
the  children  purchase  a  small  dictionary  for  their  own  use.  Webster’s  Common 
School  Dictionary  (American  Book  Co.,  Cincinnati)  is  perhaps  the  best  for  grade 
work. 

Insist  on  correct  spelling  in  all  written  work.  Review  the  rules  of  punctuation 
already  given,  and  teach  the  simple  rules  for  use  of  comma,  semicolon,  colon, 
exclamation  mark,  etc. 

Take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  in  every  lesson  to  teach  spoken  and 
written  English.  In  the  arithmetic  lesson,  for  example,  teach  neatness  of  writing 
and  arrangement,  clearness  and  correctness  of  language,  etc.  In  literature,  study 
the  use  of  words  and  help  the  pupils  to  add  words  to  their  speaking  and  writing 
vocabulary;  study  the  construction  of  sentences  and  point  out  that  John’s  sen¬ 
tences  are  too  long  and  Henry’s  too  short  as  compared  vdth  what  they  are  reading; 
study  the  paragraphing  to  see  how  authors  organize  and  unify  their  paragraphs 
and  connect  them  with  each  other.  Encourage  informal  arguments  concerning 
lessons  in  literature,  history',  etc. 


Fifth  Grade. 

During  this  grade  part  two  of  Book  I  should  be  completed. 

Supplement  the  book  study  with  much  additional  work.  In  assigning  and 
studying  the  lessons  in  the  book  be  sure  to  arouse  thought  and  intelligent  ex¬ 
pression.  (See  suggestions  in  fourth  grade.) 

Continue  oral  and  written  compositions.  Encourage  the  children  to  introduce 
fun  and  humor  into  their  stories.  Continue  the  work  in  writing  single  paragraphs 
with  topic  sentences,  and  longer  compositions  of  three  or  more  paragraphs,  with 
outlines,  written  once  a  week.  Have  pupils  criticize  each  others’  language.  Em¬ 
phasize  the  simple  grammatical  rules  in  the  book  and  show  the  pupils  that  they 
must  follow  these  rules  in  speaking  and  writing. 

Stress  the  letter,  both  the  business  letter  and  the  social  letter.  The  text  con¬ 
tains  helpful  suggestions  on  this  subject.  These  letters  should  be  based  upon  real 
life,  however,  and  not  on  the  text-book  lessons. 

In  this  grade  children  may  start  keeping  diaries.  The  teacher  should  help 
them  for  a  week  or  two  and  show  them  what' they  should  record  each  day,  then 
should  encourage  them  to  continue  the  work.  From  time  to  time  the  teacher 
should  ask  about  the  diaries  and  give  suggestions. 

Occasionally  the  pupils  should  be  asked  to  take  notes  on  something  the  teacher 
reads,  or  on  the  talks  given  by  visitors.  The  teacher  and  class  should  criticize 
these  notes  from  the  standpoint  of  fullness,  clearness,  accuracy,  etc.  Some  days 
after  the  notes  have  been  taken,  let  the  pupils  expand  them  and  reproduce  the 
original. 

Simple  and  informal  debating  should  now  be  introduced.  The  questions  should 
arise  naturally  from  the  lessons;  in  agriculture,  “Is  this  community  best  adapted 
to  fruit  raising  or  cattle  raising?”  in  history  “Did  Washington  do  more  for  his 
country  than  Lincoln?”  in  literature,  “Should  the  Pied  Piper  have  taken  the 
children  out  of  Hamelin?”  Questions  arising  in  school  may  be  debated.  For 
example,  “Should  you  snow-ball  a  boy  that  does  not  want  to  snow-ball?”  Have 
these  debates  in  connection  with  the  recitations  in  the  different  subjects.  Let 
each  pupil  choose  one  side  or  the  other  and  set  forth  his  opinions  briefly  and 


51 


f 

\ 


forcibly.  The  teacher  should  preside  and  should  insist  on  pupils  sticking  to  the 
subject,  showing  courtesy  to  an  opponent,  and  obeying  parliamentary  laws;  and 
she  should  occasionally  throw  in  a  thought-producing  question. 

Continue  the  dictionary  work.  However,  do  not  send  the  children  to  the  dic¬ 
tionary  unless  it  is  necessary.  In  the  literature  lesson,  for  example,  it  is  much 
better  to  discover  the  meaning  of  the  word,  whenever  possible,  by  examining 
the  whole  sentence  and  seeing  the  significance  of  the  word  in  the  sentence.  The 
teacher  should  not  insist  on  the  pupil’s  being  able  to  give  a  dictionary  definition; 
if  they  know  what  the  word  means,  can  give  a  synonym  for  it,  or  can  use  it  in  an 
intelligent  sentence,  they  know  the  word  well  enough. 

Encourage  pupils  to  enlarge  and  enrich  their  speaking  and  writing  vocabularies 
by  observing  and  using  good  words  they  meet  in  their  reading.  But  the  teacher 
must  be  sensible  in  this  matter.  She  should  not  urge  the  pupils  to  acquire  book¬ 
ish,  unusual  words,  but  colloquial,  suggestive,  usable  words.  To  preserve  the 
child’s  naturalness  and  vigor  and  at  the  same  time  refine,  correct,  and  enrich 
his  language  is  difficult;  but  the  teacher  must  undertake  no  less  a  task. 

All  the  children’s  written  compositions  should  be  read  aloud  in  class.  No  one 
gets  any  pleasure  in  writing  if  he  knows  it  is  not  going  to  be  read  or  heard  by 
anyone  else. 

Sixth  Grade. 

Complete  Part  Three  of  the  first  book  in  this  year.  Rearrange  the  exercises 
and  lessons  whenever  necessary,  so  that  the  oral  and  written  work  alternate 
and  combine  well.  Spend  some  time  in  assigning  each  lesson,  in  order  that  the 
pupils  may  save  some  time  in  studying. 

Continue  the  work  in  letters,  paragraph-writing,  and  oral  and  written  com¬ 
positions.  In  all  written  work,  except  friendly  letters,  outlines  should  be  re¬ 
quired.  These  outlines  should  not  be  very  complex  but  they  should  be  definite. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  assign  and  discuss  the  topic  one  day,  have  the  outline  written 
and  discussed  the  next  day,  and  the  composition  written  the  following  day. 
Insist  that  the  pupils  plan  all  written  work  carefully  before  beginning  to  write. 
They  should  know  the  number  of  paragraphs,  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  come, 
and  the  subject  matter  of  each,  before  they  start  writing.  After  they  have  pre¬ 
pared  the  outline,  encourage  them  to  write  or  talk  freely  and  naturally.  When¬ 
ever  absolutely  necessary,  they  may  change  the  outline  as  they  are  writing  their 
composition,  but  they  should  always  be  called  upon  to  give  the  reason  for  the 
change.  Make  much  of  the  oral  composition. 

Continue  the  writing  of  letters.  Arrange  a  correspondence  between  the  pupils 
of  your  school  and  those  of  a  school  in  some  other  part  of  the  state.  Have  ima¬ 
ginary  letters  written  by  travelers  in  foreign  lands,  or  by  famous  persons  in 
history  to  their  families,  or  by  a  dog  to  its  absent  master.  In  case  the  school  is 
ordering  any  books  or  supplies,  or  any  pupil  has  occasion  to  write  a  business 
letter,  make  it  a  class  exercise  and  send  the  best  letter  written. 

In  this  grade  the  teacher  should  begin  to  criticize  the  written  work  more  closely. 
Mistakes  should  be  indicated  by  symbols  (“Sp”  for  misspelled  word;  “Cap” 
for  using  a  small  letter  instead  of  a  capital  letter;  “SI”  for  using  a  capital  letter 
instead  of  a  small  letter,  etc.)  Criticisms  may  be  made  in  red  ink.  In  order 
to  make  sure  that  the  pupils  study  the  criticisms,  use  the  following  plan:  have 
the  children  write  on  only  one  side  of  the  page  in  their  composition  books,  leaving 
a  wide  margin  at  the  left  of  the  page.  Make  your  criticisms  in  this  margin.  Then 
when  you  hand  the  book  back,  have  the  children  write  the  correct  forms  just 


52 


opposite  the  incorrect  forms,  not  rewriting  the  entire  sentences,  but  only  that 
part  involved  in  the  error.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children  rewrite  the 
whole  composition,  except  in  case  of  extreme  carelessness. 

During  this  year  the  children  should  write  brief  newspaper  articles  on  the 
school  activities.  If,  for  example,  you  have  had  an  entertainment  in  the  room 
or  school,  conduct  afterwards  a  class  exercise  in  which  the  teacher  and  the  class 
discuss  what  should  be  written,  number  of  paragraphs,  etc.;  then  have  each 
child  write  an  account  of  the  entertainment.  Let  them  vote  on  the  best  article 
as  another  class  exercise,  indicating  its  good  points  and  suggesting  improvements. 
Then  have  the  writer  copy  his  article  and  send  it  to  a  local  or  county  newspaper. 

Continue  work  in  dramatization.  Study  a  story  or  poem  in  the  literature  class; 
then  have  the  children  write  out  the  dramatization,  supplying  stage  directions 
and  conversation.  Then  have  the  story  acted  according  to  the  best  dramati¬ 
zation. 

Continue  the  work  in  debating.  Assign  questions  that  lie  within  the  experience 
and  reading  of  the  children.  Have  the  pupils  make  outlines  of  what  they  are 
going  to  say  and  speak  from  these  outlines.  Do  this  in  connection  with  the  subject 
out  of  which  the  question  arises. 

Encourage  the  children  to  take  pride  in  their  spoken  and  written  language. 
Encourage  them  to  criticize  each  other  sympathetically  and  with  the  desire  to 
help  improve  each  other.  Teach  language  all  the  time. 


WRITING. 


But  little  attention  is  given  to  the  subject  of  writing  in  our  schools  and  yet  it  is 
a  subject  to  which  the  teacher  can  and  should  devote  more  time  than  is  generally 
allotted  to  it. 

We  pride  ourselves  on  being  able  to  communicate  our  ideas  to  our  fellow- 
men  in  a  clear,  forceful  and  convincing  language,  without  stopping  to  think  how 
painful  it  must  be  to  them  to  get  our  thoughts  if,  perchance,  they  have  been 
conveyed  through  the  medium  of  the  pen.  Teachers,  in  presenting  this  subject 
to  your  pupils,  be  sincere  and  conscientious,  and  let  your  aim  be  to  teach  your 
pupils  to  write  a  legible,  uniform  and  beautiful  handwriting.  Let  your  motto  be, 
“Better  today  than  yesterday.” 

Essentials. 

The  essentials  POSITION,  MOVEMENT,  SPEED,  and  FORM  must  be 
taught,  and  in  doing  so,  the  teacher  will  have  to  exercise  a  great  deal  of  patience, 
for  no  two  pupils  will  progress  with  the  same  degree  of  rapidity. 

(Note) — Slight  variations  to  suit  individuals  are  allowable,  but  the  following 
are  accepted  as  general  standards. 

Position:  See  that  the  desks  are  properly  adjusted  to  the  pupils’  needs.  In 
teaching  position,  always  consider  health  and  efficiency.  An  erect,  healthful 
position  in  writing  usually  leads  to  efficient  work.  All  through  the  year  pupils 
should  be  trained  in  the  essentials  of  good  position;  such  training  is  far  more 
important  than  immediately  apparent  results.  One  of  the  aims  of  each  lesson 
in  which  the  pupils  do  any  writing  should  be  the  establishing  of  a  good  position 
habit.  Right  kind  of  training  will  lead  to  a  good  quality  of  work. 

The  body  should  face  the  desk  in  a  square  front  position  and  inclined  slightly 
forward  from  the  hips,  allowing  a  space  of  about  two  inches  between  the  body 
and  the  desk.  The  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  paper  should  be  twelve  or 
more  inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pupil.  The  feet  should  be  placed  apart 
and  squarely  on  the  floor. 

Place  both  arms  upon  the  desk,  forming  approximately  right  angles  at  the  • 
elbows.  Keep  both  elbows  near  the  front  of  the  desk.  The  left  hand,  placed 
just  above  the  writing  line,  holds  and  adjusts  the  paper.  The  right  arm  rests 
only  on  its  own  weight  on  the  muscles  in  front  of  the  elbow.  The  only  other 
point  of  contact  of  the  right  arm  with  the  desk  should  be  the  nails  of  the  third 
and  fourth  fingers  bent  under  the  hand,  forming  the  “gliding  rest.” 

The  pen  or  pencil  should  be  held  loosely  between  the  thumb,  forefinger,  and 
second  finger.  The  distance  between  the  end  of  the  forefinger  and  point  of  pen 
should  be  about  one  inch.  The  other  end  of  the  pen  should  point  to  the  right 
shoulder. 

The  paper  should  be  placed  so  that  it  will  be  easy  to  swing  the  arm  to  the  right 
or  left  along  the  writing  line.  The  rule  is  sometimes  given  to  place  it  so  that  a  line 
drawn  from  the  upper  right  hand  corner  to  the  louver  left  hand  corner  would 
point  toward  the  center  of  the  body.  It  should  be  moved  by  the  left  hand  accord¬ 
ing  to  convenience.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  paper  be  moved  upward  and 
not  the  right  hand  downward  as  the  writing  progresses  down  the  page. 


54 


Movement:  The  muscular  movement  is  the  one  by  the  use  of  which  the 
essentials  of  practical  penmanship  can  be  acquired, — legibility,  rapidity,  ease 
and  endurance.  This  movement  is  produced  by  the  large  muscles  of  the  upper 
arm  and  shoulder,  causing  the  arm  to  roll  on  the  muscular  cushion  of  the  fore¬ 
arm  located  just  in  front  of  the  elbow  where  it  rests  upon  the  desk  with  the  nails 
of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  gliding  on  the  paper.  The  nails  of  these  fingers 
should  describe  every  movement  that  the  pen  makes.  The  pen,  held  motionless 
in  the  hand,  should  be  governed  by  the  arm  with  the  forearm,  hand  and  fingers 
acting  together  as  a  unit.  Insist  on  correct  movement  in  all  written  work. 

Movement  Exercises. 


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55 


Practice  the  “push  and  pull”  movement,  direct  compact  or  spiral  oval,  the 
direct  retracing  oval.  Two  space  practice,  then  the  one  space.  Practice  m,  u, 
1,  j  and  0  exercises — ^m  and  n,  1  and  inverted  1 — first  one  space  and.  as  freedom  and 
control  are  gained,  reduce  in  size  till  the  m,  n,  u  and  o  are  reduced  to  half  space. 

The  teacher  should  make  use  of  any  other  movement  exercises  which  may  be 
deemed  helpful  in  development  of  good  movement. 

Note:  For  further  movement  drill  see  Manual  prepared  by  Laurel  Book 
Company,  Chicago.  (Free  for  the  asking.) 

Speed:  Speed  is  of  much  importance  in  developing  light  and  uniform  motion. 
Counting  serves  to  restrain  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  to  scribble,  and  is  a 
spur  to  habitually  slow  pupils.  In  the  principal  movement  drills  in  the  upper 
grade  there  should  be  from  150  to  180  down  strokes  per  minute.  Such  drills 
are  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  rate  of  speed  to  be  used  in  writing.  How¬ 
ever,  in  letter  and  word  formation,  the  speed  is  slower  on  account  of  stops  and 
changes  in  motion.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  movement  work  should  be 
just  rapid  enough  for  real  use  in  writing. 

Count  for  each  down  or  right  connecting  stroke  in  the  movement  exercises 
given  above.  Example,  down.  This  word  has  nine  counts.  The  rate  of  speed 
in  this  tase  should  be  about  20  words  per  minute. 

Form:  As  correct  habits  of  position  and  movement  are  being  formed  and  a 
fair  degree  of  speed  being  secured  the  emphasis  should  be  shifted  gradually  to 
correct  letter  and  word  formation.  Pupils  should  compare,  frequently,  their 
owm  work  with  their  copies. 

The  slant  should  be  natural  and  individual.  Most  pupils  are  largely  imitative 
and  for  this  reason  they  will  imitate  the  slant  shown  in  the  copies,  but  within 
reasonable  limits  each  one  should  be  allowed  to  develop  his  own  slant,  provided 
it  is  uniform  in  all  his  writing. 

Practice:  We  learn  to  do  things  by  doing  them.  Without  regular  practice 
we  cannot  hope  to  attain  to  any  degree  of  perfection.  The  movement  drills 
are  means  to  an  end,  not  the  end.  Begin  applying  movement  to  writing  of  letters 
and  words  in  the  first  grade.  Aimless  practice  accomplishes  nothing.  The 
writing  lesson  should  be  planned  the  same  as  any  other  lesson.  A  good  plan  is 
to  practice  the  exercise  first,  then  the  letter,  then  the  letter  in  the  word,  then  the 
word  in  the  sentence — giving  about  the  same  length  of  time  to  each.  Encourage 
muscular  movement  in  all  written  work  and  accept  nothing  but  the  pupil’s  best. 
Exhibit  pages  of  movement  drill  and  written  work. 

Materials  for  All  Grades. 

It  is  essential  that  ail  materials  be  selected  with  care,  as  good  work  cannot  be 
done  with  poor  tools.  Economy  in  the  use  of  materials  care  in  regard  to  details, 
neatness  and  a  pleasing  orderly  arrangement  of  work,  should  become  habits  with 
each  individual  member  of  the  class. 

Paper:  Large  sheets,  preferably  unruled,  are  best  for  beginners.  During  the 
latter  half  of  the  first  or  the  beginning  of  the  second  year,  ruled  paper  may  be 
introduced.  Paper  for  the  first  and  second  years  need  not  be  of  a  good  quality, 
but  when  pen  and  ink  are  introduced  in  third  grade  and  above,  a  standard  qual¬ 
ity  paper  should  be  used. 

Writing  Book:  The  state  adopted  series  prepared  by  the  Laurel  Book  G)m- 
pany,  Chicago,  Ill. 


56 


Pencils  and  Pens:  Large,  soft  pencils  and  wax  crayons  should  be  used  in 
first  and  second  grades.  For  the  third  and  succeeding  grades  a  standard  size 
may  be  used. 

The  pens,  at  least  for  the  third  and  fourth  grades,  should  be  fitted  with  rather 
large,  smooth  round  points.  In  the  follomng  grades  a  finer  point  is  preferable. 
The  pen  holder  should  be  made  of  wood,  cork  or  rubber,  but  never  of  metal, 
and  should  be  about  3  -8  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  bottom. 

Work  should  be  done  frequently  with  crayon  at  the  blackboard  for  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  movement. 


Teaching  Points. 

1.  Insist  on  neatness  and  orderly  arrangement  in  all  written  work.  No  lesson 
should  be  given  until  the  desks  are  clear  and  order  prevails. 

2.  There  should  be  a  daily  writing  lesson  of  not  less  than  ten  minutes.  No 
writing  lesson  should  immediately  follow  an  intermission. 

3.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  a  specimen  of  each  pupil’s  writing,  including 
the  name,  date  and  time  required  should  be  taken.  At  frequent  intervals  through¬ 
out  the  year  others  should  be  selected  to  show  improvement.  This  method  of 
grading  will  furnish  the  child  an  effective  stimulus  and  motive. 

See  “Ayres”  scale  for  grading  hand  writing.  A  copy  may  be  secured  from 
the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  130  E.  2nd  St.,  New  York  City,  for  5  cents.  See 
also  scale  w'orked  out  by  Dr.  Thorndike,  a  copy  of  which  is  found  in  “Teaching 
the  Common  Branches,”  by  Charters. 

4.  No  shading  should  be  allow'ed  in  any  exercise. 

5.  General  instruction  as  a  whole  is  all  right.  But  however  well  this  is  done, 
it  is  much  more  effective  to  give  individual  attention.  Criticize  judiciously  and 
commend  whenever  possible.  Pupils  will  usually  do  as  poorly  as  the  teacher  will 
permit  and  as  well  as  he  demands. 

6.  There  must  be  muscular  relaxation  in  order  to  have  good  movement. 
This  may  be  secured  in  various  ways.  One  method  is  by  dropping  the  arms  by  the 
sides  of  the  seats  and  shaking  them  vigorously  for  an  instant.  Another  w^ay  is 
by  executing  rapidly  some  easy  exercise  while  looking  away  at  some  object  on 
a  level  with  the  eyes.  This  takes  the  mind  aw^ay  from  the  arm,  thus  securing  a 
greater  relaxation  of  muscle.  Again,  have  the  class  stand,  raise  arms  over  head, 
relax  fingers,  wrists,  elbows,  and  shoulders.  Repeat,  arms  raised  even  with 
shoulders,  drop  as  if  lifeless  to  side.  Repeat,  relax  fingers  and  wrists' with  arms 
at  sides.  Counting  from  one  to  ten  in  the  above  exercises  helps  the  work. 

7.  Plan  each  lesson  with  the  special  needs  of  the  class  in  mind.  The  most 
effective  way  to  show  how  a  drill  is  made  is  by  making  it  in  the  presence  .of  the 
pupils.  One  sometimes  teaches  most  effectively  when  he  is  learning  along  with 
the  pupils. 

8.  Lead  pupils  to  see  their  faults  by  questioning  them  on  specific  points,  and 
by  comparing  their  work  with  the  models  shown.  Do  not  fail  to  commend  for 
work  well  done. 


First  Grade. 

The  first  essential  in  this  grade  is  to  train  the  pupils  to  sit  and  write  in  hygienic 
postures  with  particular  reference  to  body,  arms  and  head.  Teachers  should 
exercise  much  care  and  patience  in  seeing  that  this  is  carried  out. 


57 


S^Place  much  emphasis  upon  movement.  Writing  is  controlled  movement. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  stressing  this  fundamental.  It  is  very  advisable  at  first 
to  give  movement  exercises  in  the  air. 

Much  of  the  first  year’s  work  should  be  done  at  the  blackboard.  The  teacher 
should  make  the  movement  drills  and  have  the  children  watch.  Then  at  the 
word  of  command  have  the  children  write.  The  work  should  be  quick  and  en¬ 
thusiastic.  From  the  beginning,  teach  position,  light  touch,  neatness  and  ar¬ 
rangement.  No  writing  lesson  should  be  carried  to  the  point  of  fatigue.  There 
should  be  no  assigned  “busy  work”  writing  in  the  primary  grades. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all  writing  in  the  first  grade  be  carefully 
supervised.  A  very  grave  mistake  is  made  when  the  child  is  allowed  to  form 
wrong  habits  which  must  be  corrected  later.  And  such  will  be  formed  except 
under  the  most  careful  supervision. 

First  grade  children  at  the  close  of  the  year  should  know  the  proper  position, 
have  well  formed  notions  of  movement  and  paper  holding,  and  should  be  able 
to  write  the  alphabet  of  small  letters  in  order  or  from  dictation,  their  own  names, 
town  and  school,  figures  to  100,  a  few  simple  sentences,  and  capitals  necessary 
for  the  language  work  required  of  them. 

It  is  much  better  that  children  should  learn  letters  in  comparative  heights  . 
than  between  lines. 

Second  Grade. 

The  first  few  weeks  of  school  the  lessons  of  this  grade  should  be  at  the  board 
only,  after  which  practice  should  be  done  on  paper,  with  frequent  drills  on  the 
board  throughout  the  year  on  letters,  figures,  words,  pupil’s  names,  and  easy 
sentences. 

Place  emphasis  on  correct  position,  freedom,  and  proper  movement.  Endeavor 
to  establish  good  form.  Carefully  supervise  all  work.  Don’t  accept  careless  or 
slovenly  work.  Drill  in  word  and  sentence  writing.  Look  for  good  points  and 
keep  specimens  posted. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  the  pupil  should  occupy  proper  position  at  desk  or 
board,  have  well  fixed  habits  of  pencil  and  paper  holding,  a  fair  degree  of  uni¬ 
formity  in  work,  good  movement,  and  should  show  decided  improvement  in 
general  on  first  year’s  work  in  forming  letters,  words  and  in  sentence  writing. 

Third  Grade. 

Continue  to  emphasize  correct  position  and  correct  movement.  Give  much 
instruction  in  movement  for  making  letters  and  figures.  Continue  word  and 
sentence  writing.  Work  for  the  development  of  speed.  Make  a  detail  study  of 
the  letters  and  teach  difficult  letters  and  combination  of  small  letters,  such  as 
X,  c,  k,  z,  or  ch,  wr  and  os.  Give  particular  attention  to  form. 

Introduce  and  teach  proper  use  of  pen  and  ink.  Dwell  on  the  essentials  of 
position  and  movement  as  though  they  had  never  been  explained  before — keep 
specimens  posted. 

At  the  end  of  the  year’s  work  the  pupil  should  have  acquired  the  following: 

(a)  A  very  fair  use  of  muscular  movement. 

(b)  Ability  to  compare  letter  forms  and  make  difficult  combinations. 

(c)  A  more  definite  idea  as  to  form  and  size  of  script. 

(d)  A  fair  rate  of  speed. 


58 


(e)  Good,  well  formed  habits  of  penmanship. 

(f)  Ability  to  write  all  capitals. 

Fourth  Grade 


Emphasize  correct  position,  correct  drill  movements,  and  apphcation  of  all 
fundamental  principles.  Give  instruction  in  controlled  letter  drills.  See  that 
all  work  of  the  preceding  grades  is  strengthened.  Systematic  drills  to  increase 
speed  should  be  given  for  two  or  three  minutes  at  the  close  of  each  writing  lesson. 
First  drills  for  speed  should  be  wTiting  an  easy  letter  or  word  over  and  over, 
increasing  speed  without  sacrificing  form. 

Counting  is  a  means  of  gmng  uniformity  to  movement  and  keeps  the  class 
working  harmoniously.  Such  work  directed  by  a  live  teacher  always  creates 
enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  class.  In  giving  counts  use  such  expressions  as 
“Heads  up,”  “Feet  flat,”  “Light  lines,”  “Wrists  free,”  “Pen  loose,”  etc. 
This  will  impress  upon  the  pupils,  habits  to  be  acquired. 

Occasional  board  practice  should  be  done  to  correct  individual  faults  and 
secure  better  desk  practice. 


Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades. 

In  addition  to  the  work  to  be  emphasized  in  grade  IV,  place  much  emphasis 
on  controlled  letters  and  word  drills,  uniformity  of  slant,  height,  and  spacing 
in  all  writing.  Apply  standard  tests  or  measuring  scales  frequently.  Give 
various  drills  for  improving  and  controlling  movement.  Drill  on  letters  of  diffi¬ 
cult  combination.  Make  all  written  work,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  serve  as 
lessons  in  penmansliip.  Give  spelling  lessons  as  writing  lessons.  See  that  all 
work  is  carefully  done,  and  keep  specimens  of  this  work  posted. 


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own 

says 

January 

during 

several 

justice 

beat 

here 

clean 

before 

uit-mber 

mean 

through 

desire 

gentleman 

form 

car 

spell 

know 

case 

vote 

police 

nearly 

enclose 

far 

gave 

w.ird 

every 

poor 

nnish 

II 

w  1  lie 

until 

ms'lam 

await 

snpposr 

• 

tHke 

add 

moat 

maybe 

early 

those 

been 

whole 

direction 

made 

across 

close 

office 

yerterday 

address 

forward 

said 

toni^t 

tenth 

flower 

great 

among 

request 

although 

work 

nothing 

Miss 

Question 

raise 

prompt 

our 

sir 

pound 

who 

doctor 

August 

attempt 

more 

these 

lead 

died 

hear 

Tuesday 

whose 

such 

change 

site 

struck 

statement 

from 

seen 

maoy 

wire 

Dtoember 

getting 

perhaps 

ftind 

felt 

morning 

few 

doren 

don  t 

their 

print 

fuU 

however 

please 

there 

Thursday 

imprison 

air 

fail 

mind 

picture 

tax 

written 

hll 

set 

shall 

money 

number 

arrange 

along 

stamp 

alone 

ready 

October 

lost 

light 

order 

omit 

reason 

name 

coming 

third 

anyway 

fifth 

s 

room 

cent 

push 

hope 

night 

point 

same 

pass 

within 

shut 

done 

with 

easy 

body 

Imioe 


U 


V 


vv 


X 


Y 


Z 


FIFTH 

GRADE 


58 


50 


SIXTH 

OnADE 


75 


66 


58 


50 


SEVENTH 

QRADE 


84 


79 


75 


66 


58 


50 


lOfiant 

oarlioat 

tt'iotlior 

(Laliuuuiah 

ouuudaratiun 

cfilnnio* 

nicutu 

pHief 

<iccupy 

f'lnhniily 
Qcuiuti 
aapuiiHO 
rcajimiaililu 

liaaimimK 

nppliuitiun 

(riiTiculty 

Hn:ni> 

fioally 

dovclop 

rircuniBtiiDPA 

iiiuo 

material 

Huuacat 

mcro 

Bi4iato 

reeeivu 

rrnprcffully 

niirccnicnt 

uiifortiiiiule 

tnaiurity 

cliiburaie 

citizen 

nuccsoary 

divide 


pruicipul 

tttsUmuny 

ducviMiou 

nrrftiiui'tiu'nt 

roforiMn'e 

eviduiire 

('xprricnoo 

ai'Hniim 

M’OTPtnry 

aasucialiun 

curticr 

height 


ortinmantinu 

nnervoni'y 

HiiK-eroly 

Htliletio 

I'llreme 

practicnl 

lirorei-d 

rnrdiiilly 

I'lmrnctor 

auparnte 

Fabruary 


'inmedinto 

Ditnvuiiioiit 

rm-ii't 

iiri'iiiiiiiiary 

iliHupPoint 

I'aix'rlally 

niiimnl 

cotiiiiiiltoo 


(Iroiaion 

liriuoipls 


jinUmcnt 

rpriitunioiid 

ullogo 


RUSSELL  SAGE  FOUNDATION,  NEW  VORK  CITY 
DIVISION  Of  EDUCATION 
LEONARD  P.  AYRES.  DIRECTOR 


The  date  of  thia  aoale  are  computed  from  an  aiotrcuate  of  1,400.000 
epellingf  by  70,000  children  in  84  citiee  througbout  the  country.  The 
vrorda  are  J.OOO  in  numlicr  end  the  liat  ia  the  product  of  comlnnjng 
different  etudice  with  the  object  of  identifying  the  1,000  comraonMt 
worda  in  English  writing.  Copica  of  this  scale  may  be  ob^ned  for  nva 
cents  apiece.  Copies  of  the  monograph  deacrii»ing  the  inveatigatJOM 
which  produce*!  it  may  be  obtained  tor  30  <xnta  each  Addrm  the 
ItuBaell  8ege  Fouudatiuu.  Diviaion  of  Education,  130  East  22d  Street, 
New  York  City. 


1- 


EIGHTH 

GRADE 


SPELLING. 


General  Discussion. 

The  principal  aims  of  teaching  spelling  are  to  train  the  children  to  spell  cor¬ 
rectly  the  words  they  use  in  their  writing  in  school,  to  impress  upon  them  the 
desirability  of  spelling  correctly  the  words  they  write,  and  before  they  leave 
school  to  equip  them  with  the  skill  and  inspire  them  with  the  wish  to  learn  the 
spelling  of  new  words  they  are  called  upon  to  spell  in  writing  after  they  have 
left  school. 

These  aims  necessitate  three  kinds  of  work,  which  are  distinct  in  theory, 
though  not  inseparable  in  practice: 

1.  Training  pupils  to  spell,  automatically,  mechanically,  without  stopping 
to  think,  all  the  words  in  common  use  in  writing. 

2.  Emphasizing  correct  spelling,  making  it  important,  pointing  out  frequently 
how  necessary  correct  spelling  is  in  real  life,  how  severely  a  person  is  criticized 
for  misspelling. 

3.  Teaching  a  few  important  spelling  rules  and  training  children  in  the  art 
of  consulting  the  dictionary. 

These  three  kinds  of  work  are  here  considered,  one  at  a  time. 

I.  Learning  to  Spell  the  Most  Common  Words. 

What  are  the  most  common  words?  By  an  accurate  and  elaborate  cal¬ 
culation,  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  of  New  York  City,  found  the  one  thousand 
words  most  frequently  used.  The  Foundation  then  listed  these  one  thousand 
words  by  grades,  so  that  teachers  may  test  their  pupils’  spelling  ability.  (See 
insert.) 

Before  the  children  leave  the  elementary  school,  they  should  all,  if  possible, 
be  able  to  make  one  hundred  percent  in  spelling  these  words.  And  their  . 
ability  to  spell  should  be  further  measured  by  the  correct  spelling  of  these  words 
in  their  writing:  if  they  spell  a  word  right  in  the  formal  spelling  lesson,  but 
spell  it  wrong  in  their  language  or  composition  work,  they  have  not  yet  mastered 
the  word. 

Other  lists  of  words  most  frequently  used  are  found  in  “The  Child  and  His 
Spelling”  by  Cook  and  O’Shea,  published  by  the  Bobbs-Merrill  Company, 
Indianapolis,  Indiana. 

It  is  almost  a  certainty  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  children  will  need  to  spell 
these  words  in  writing.  In  addition  to  these  one  thousand  words,  there  are,  per¬ 
haps,  about  five  hundred  other  words  used  frequently  enough  by  the  majority 
of  the  children  to  justify  their  being  taught  and  emphasized.  Certain  proper 
names  (family  names  and  “given”  names,  counties,  cities  and  towns,  etc.), 
often  used  in  writing  in  any  community  should  be  taught  in  that  community. 
In  country  schools  a  number  of  words  peculiar  to  rural  life  should  be  taught; 
in  industrial  centers  the  words  used  in  industries  should  be  taught.  Moreover, 
the  observant  teacher  will  discover,  by  studying  the  children’s  written  work, 
that  a  number  of  children  use  (and  perhaps  misspell)  certain  words  not  given 
in  the  list  above  or  even  in  the  spelling  books.  All  such  words  should  be  taught 
in  class. 


60 


Even’  teacher  knows  that  nearly  all  children  will  spell  most  words  correctly. 
As  soon  as  it  becomes  evident,  by  testing  and  experience,  what  these  words  are, 
they  should  be  eliminated  as  a  part  of  class  work;  and  as  words  that  are  difficult 
for  most  pupils  are  discovered,  special  emphasis  should  be  thrown  on  these 
words.  If  only  one  or  two  children  misspell  certain  words,  the  teacher  should 
give  these  children  individual  attention  until  they  have  mastered  the  words. 

Undoubtedly,  most  teachers  attempt  to  teach  too  many  words.  The  average 
person  will  not  use  more  than  some  fifteen  hundred  words  in  his  writing,  and  of 
those  words  he  will  spell  perhaps  fourteen  hundred  correctly  without  any  special 
teaching.  It  is  impossible  to  attain  to  one  hundred  percent  efficiency  in  spelling 
the  most  common  words  as  long  as  we  try  to  teach  the  spelling  of  eight  or  ten 
thousand  words — most  of  which  will  never  be  used  in  writing.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  isolate  the  most  difficult  of  the  common  words  and  drill  on  these 
in  class,  then  give  individual  attention  to  the  poor  spellers. 

Causes  of  Misspelling.  At  this  point  it  is  desirable  that  the  causes  of  mis¬ 
spelling  be  considered. 

There  are  two  classes  of  misspelling:  first  misspelling  because  one  is  ignorant; 
second,  misspelling  because  one  is  careless.  Let  us  take  up  only  the  former 
class.  Carelessness  in  spelling  is  to  be  cured  usually  by  the  same  methods  by 
which  we  cure  carelessness  in  anything  else. 

The  English  language  is  an  unphonetic  language — that  is,  the  sound  of  spoken 
words  does  not  always  indicate  the  appearance  of  the  written  words,  and  vice 
versa.  Take  the  ough  sound,  as  illustration.  In  through,  ough  has  the  sound 
of  oo;  in  though,  it  has  the  sound  of  o;  in  plough,  it  has  the  sound  of  ow; 
in  tough,  it  has  the  sound  of  uff;  in  cough,  it  has  the  sound  of  off.  Many 
vowels  and  consonants  and  consonant  combinations  have  varying  sounds  in 
different  words.  If  ie  always  represented  the  same  sound,  and  ei  a  different 
sound,  we  would  have  little  difficulty  in  spelling  them.  This  is  the  most  fruitful 
cause  of  misspelling. 

In  addition  to  the  unphonetic  nature  of  our  language,  many  of  us  are  lazy  and 
careless  in  our  enunciation,  and  fail  to  give  in  our  speech  the  exact  sounds,  which 
would  indicate  the  correct  spelling.  We  say  “probly”  for  “probably,”  there¬ 
fore  we  are  likely  to  write  the  word  probly;  we  say  “seperate”  instead  of  “sep¬ 
arate,”  therefore  we  are  likely  to  write  the  word  seperate. 

In  the  third  place,  many  persons  have  some  physical  or  mental  defects  which 
cause  them  to  misspell.  One’s  vision  may  be  indistinct,  so  that  he  cannot  see 
a  word  clearly;  one’s  hearing  may  be  so  poor  that  he  cannot  hear  a  word  dis¬ 
tinctly,  or,  because  of  physical  or  mental  defects,  one  may  never  have  a  clear- 
cut  image  of  how  the  word  looks;  he  cannot  “shut  his  eyes  and  see  the  word.” 

Finally,  a  child  may  misspell  because  he  has  learned  the  wrong  spelling  and  has 
it  established  as  a  habit. 

These  conditions  make  it  imperative  that  we  know  why  each  child  mis- 
spe  Is  and  that  we  teach  spelling.  Most  teachers  do  not  really  teach  spelling; 
they  merely  assign  the  spelling  lesson,  then  test  to  see  if  the  children  have  learned. 
By  simple  tests  we  can  tell  why  a  certain  child  misspells  a  certain  word.  But 
the  teaching  of  spelling  is  more  difficult.  Let  us,  then,  consider 


61 


How  to  Teach  Spelling. 

First,  through  spelling  lessons. 

1 .  Have  a  definite  period  for  teaching  spelling  in  all  the  grades  after  the  second 
year.  The  teacher  should  assign  from  the  spelling  book  or  from  his  own  lists 
of  misspelled  words,  not  more  than  five  new  words  a  day — fewer  than  that,  in 
the  lower  grades.  Test  the  children  on  the  easy,  common  words;  assign  for 
study  only  the  difficult  common  words;  pay  no  attention  at  all  in  class  to  the 
uncommon  words. 

2.  When  assigning  the  words  for  study,  make  sure  that  the  children  under¬ 
stand  the  meaning  of  the  words.  They  need  not  define  the  words,  but  they 
should  be  able  to  give  synonyms  or  use  the  words  in  sentences. 

3.  Pronounce  the  words  being  assigned  and  have  the  children  pronounce 
them;  write  them  on  the  board  and  have  the  children  write  them. 

4.  Clearly  indicate  the  difficulties  in  the  words.  If,  for  example,  the  word 
“describe”  is  one  of  the  words  assigned,  show  the  children  that  they  are  likely 
to  misspell  the  de;  underscore  this  part  of  the  word,  or  write  it  on  the  board 
with  colored  crayon.  Focus  the  children’s  attention  on  this  section  of  the  word. 

5.  Direct  the  children  how  to  master  the  words.  Some  persons  are  “eye- 
minded;”  they  will  learn  best  by  looking  steadily  at  a  word  till  it  makes  a  picture 
on  the  mind.  (But  the  word  being  studied  should  be  in  script  symbols  rather 
than  in  print  symbols  since  the  mages  of  the  two  are  somewhat  different,  and  it  is 
the  script  that  we  wish  the  children  to  image.)  Some  persons  are  “ear-minded;” 
they  will  learn  best  by  spelling  the  word  orally  and  hearing  it.  Others  are  “muscu¬ 
lar-minded;”  they  will  learn  best  by  writing  the  word.  Most  persons  will  learn 
best  by  using  all  three  methods,  thus  impressing  the  word  upon  their  minds  in 
different  ways. 

6.  Ability  to  spell  the  words  assigned  may  be  tested  either  orally  or  in  writing. 
One  of  the  best  ways  is  by  having  the  children  write  sentences  (e'ther  original 
or  dictated  by  the  teacher)  in  which  the  assigned  words  are  used.  But  the  only 
final  and  absolute  test  of  spelling  ability  is  power  to  spell  the  word  in  actual 
written  expression  when  the  pupil  is  intent  upon  the  content  and  not  the  form. 

7.  Reviews  of  the  difficult  words  are  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  permanent 
mastery  we  are  trying  to  achieve,  not  a  temporary  ownership  that  soon  is  given  up. 

Second,  through  language  and  composition  work.  The  teacher  who  expects 
to  make  her  pupils  good  spellers  must  have  them  write  a  good  deal  and  she  must 
examine  their  writing.  This  is  important  for  three  reasons.  First:  It  reveals 
what  new  words  the  children  are  misspelling,  so  that  the  teacher  may  test  them 
and  make  lessons  of  them.  Second,  it  is  the  best  means  of  testing  the  ability  of 
children  to  spell  the  words  already  taught.  Third,  it  is  the  only  way  of  training 
the  children  in  spelling  correctly  through  habit  under  the  conditions  in  which 
they  will  be  expected  to  spell  in  life.  The  teacher,  therefore,  should  never  ignore 
misspelling  in  the  written  work  of  the  pupils;  it  is  always  significant. 

Third,  through  other  school  subjects.  When  difficult  common  words  are 
found  in  other  subjects,  such  as  History,  Geography,  Literature,  etc.,  the  chil¬ 
dren’s  attention  should  be  called  to  these  words.  But  it  is  only  the  common 
words  that  should  be  given  attention.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  to  require  the  children 
to  learn  the  spelling  of  difficult  words  or  proper  names  in  Geography  or  History 
or  any  subject,  unless  there  is  a  strong  probabihty  that  the  children  will  some 
time  have  occasion  to  use  these  words.  The  work  in  spelling  should  aim  to 


62 


give  children  master^"  over  the  words  they  use  or  will  use  in  writing,  not  to  enlarge 
their  vocabulary. 

We  have  been  considering  the  means  of  teaching  children  to  spell  the  more 
common  words.  Let  us  now  take  up  the  second  kind  of  spelling  work. 

II.  Taking  Pride  in  Spelling  Correctly. 

It  is  difficult  to  bring  children  to  an  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  accurate 
spelling.  Correct  spelling  is  almost  entirely  a  matter  of  form — and  matters  of 
form  are  hard  to  make  vital.  Not  very  often  does  the  wrong  spelling  of  a  word 
obscure  the  meaning:  Separate  with  an  e  in  the  second  syllable  is  clearly  under¬ 
stood  as  separate,  not  something  else. 

The  only  ways  in  which  we  can  bring  home  to  children  the  importance  of 
spelling,  are:  First,  by  making  it  clear,  by  repetition  and  by  numerous  ex¬ 
amples,  that  when  they  are  out  of  school  and  are  writing  letters  or  anything 
else  that  is  to  be  read,  they  will  be  looked  upon  as  illiterate  if  they  misspell  words; 
Second,  by  placing  a  great  deal  of  earnest  emphasis  upon  the  spelling  process  in 
school:  by  urging  them  to  correct  their  spelhng  faults,  by  paying  attention  to 
spelling  in  their  written  work,  by  reminding  them  that  words  are  not  theirs 
till  they  can  spell  them,  by  spelling  matches — by  every  legitimate  means  we  can 
adopt.  Children  must  develop  a  spelling  conscience,  must  be  brought  to  the 
point  where  they  feel  guilty  if  they  spell  incorrectly.  If  we  cannot  do  this,  at¬ 
tempting  to  teach  children  to  spell  is  almost  hopeless. 

III.  Learning  Rules  and  Acquiring  the  Dictionary  Habit. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  we  teach  children  to  spell  all  the  common  words  they 
wish  to  use  and  to  feel  a  sense  of  pride  in  spelling  these  words.  We  must  also 
equip  them  for  conquering  new  words  which  they  will  learn  later  on  and  wiU 
wish  td*  spell.  The  child,  who,  when  he  leaves  the  elementary  school  is  not 
provided  with  the  ability  to  learn  the  spelling  of  new  words,  learn  them  rapidly 
and  easily,  is  untutored  in  one  of  the  fundamental  aspects  of  spelling.  Two  of 
the  tools  in  the  use  of  which  the  child  should  attain  skill  while  he  is  in  school, 
are  spelling  rules,  and  the  dictionary. 

Spelling  Rules.  There  are  just  a  few  spelling  rules  that  are  worth  teaching, 
but  these  few  are  well  worth  it.  Here  are  two  that  should  be  taught:  A  mono¬ 
syllable  or  polysyllable  with  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  ending  in  a  single  con¬ 
sonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel  doubles  that  final  consonant  before  a  suffix 
beginning  with  a  vowel.  Examples:  Hop,  hopping;  bag,  baggage;  omit, 
omitting;  acquit,  acquittal.  This  rule  is  almost  invariable.  2.  Most  words 
ending  in  silent  e,  drop  the  e  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel.  Examples: 
Write,  writing;  excite,  exciting.  There  are  some  common  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Any  person  who  knows  these  and  a  few  other  useful  rules,  and  has  learned  to 
apply  them  can  solve  many  of  the  spelling  difficulties  as  they  come  up  in  life. 
If  he  does  not  know  them,  he  must  learn  hundreds  of  different  forms — he  must 
learn  not  only  hop,  but  hopped,  not  only  write  but  writing  as  separate  forms. 
Surely  it  is  more  economical  of  time  and  energy  to  teach  the  rules  and  train  the 
children  to  apply  them. 

Using  the  dictionary.  Before  they  leave  school,  children  should  be  made 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  dictionary  and  trained  in  its  use.  When,  for 
example,  he  wishes  to  use  a  certain  word  in  a  composition  and  realizes  that  he 


63 


does  not  know  how  to  spell  it,  or  if  he  has  spelled  the  word  incorrectly,  the  teacher 
should  direct  him  to  the  dictionary,  and  should  show  him  how  to  use  it.  Most 
children  cannot  find  their  way  about  in  the  dictionary;  the  teacher  must  go 
with  him  as  a  guide.  Every  pupil  in  the  upper  grades  should  be  in  the  habit  of 
consulting  the  dictionary  to  ascertain  or  to  verify  the  spelling  of  words.  In 
no  other  wa^'"  can  a  child  attain  master^'  over  one  of  the  most  important  tools  of 
knowledge. 

Conclusion. 

Ehminating  all  but  the  useful  words  and  concentrating  on  these  useful  words, 
really  teaching  them,  and  making  the  children  automatically  and  habitually 
correct  in  the  spelling  of  these  words;  requiring  the  children  to  write  much,  that 
they  may  learn  the  words  in  natural  settings;  inspiring  a  pride  in  correct  spelling 
and  a  shame  for  incorrect  spelling;  and  giving  children  command  of  the  spelling 
implements  by  which  they  may  at  any  time  learn  the  spelling  of  new  words — 
these  are  the  most  important  parts  of  the  method  in  spelling. 

Outline  by  Grades. 

Teachers  will  find  excellent  suggestions  for  teaching  spelling  in  the  prefaces 
and  appendixes  to  the  texts.  The  texts  contain  many  more  words  than  children 
need  to  know  how  to  spell.  Teachers,  therefore,  should  omit  any  words  not 
commonly  used  by  the  average  person  in  his  writing,  and  should  teach  the  spelling 
of  all  words  used  in  the  children’s  writing  even  though  they  are  not  found  in  the 
spelling  textbooks.  No  book  should  be  used  the  first  and  second  years. 

Third  year — ^Mastery  of  Words,  Book  I,  pages  1-50. 

Fourth  year — ^Mastery  of  Words,  Book  I,  pages  51-90. 

Fifth  year — Mastery  of  Words,  Book  I,  pages  91-134. 

Sixth  year — ^Mastery  of  Words,  Book  II,  pages  1-41. 


ARITHMETIC. 


1.  Scope  of  Arithmetic.  Arithmetic  should  be  taught  throughout  the 
third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  grades.  No  formal  study  of  the  subject  should  be 
encouraged  or  allowed  in  the  first  and  second  grades.  A  limited  amount  of 
number  work  may  be  accomplished  in  the  first  two  grades,  but  it  should  all  be 
oral  and  incidental;  that  is,  it  should  grow  out  of  other  lessons  and  activities, 
both  in  and  out  of  school,  in  which  the  child  takes  part. 

The  regular,  required  work  beginning  in  the  third  grade  should  be  varied  to 
suit  the  needs  of  the  children  at  each  age.  It  should  be  made  practical  and  closely 
related  to  the  child’s  surroundings  and  to  what  the  child  already  knows. 

2.  Definite  aim  by  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  plan  each  lesson 
carefully,  keeping  in  mind  the  principle  that  facts  learned  in  arithmetic  are 
valuable  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  use  they  have  or  will  have  for  the  pupils. 
Each  lessons  or  connected  series  of  lessons  should  have  a  specific  aim.  The  work 
of  the  class  period  must  all  center  around  this  aim.  All  work  of  the  pupils  should 
be  accurate,  neat,  and  done  rapidly.  Accuracy  and  speed  must  be  gained  at  the 
same  time.  “Accuracy  first  and  speed  afterwards”  is  bad  in  that  it  leaves  the 
child  with  many  bad  habits  to  overcome. 

3.  Motivation.  There  are  two  ways  of  motivating, — that  is,  of  developing 
in  the  pupil  a  lively  interest  in — school  work  in  arithmetic,  (a)  One  may  appeal 
to  the  child’s  instincts  such  as  the  joy  of  mastery,  or  to  the  spirit  of  emulation, 
always  present  in  classes,  (b)  One  may  impress  upon  the  pupil  his  present  or 
his  future  need  of  the  work.  All  work  should  be  motivated  if  the  child  is  to  make 
rapid  progress. 

4.  Drill.  There  should  be  short  drill  periods  nearly  every  day  so  that  the 
child  will  not  forget  what  he  has  learned.  This  should  not  be  given  in  the  same 
way  each  day,  but  should  be  varied.  Drill  work  that  grows  out  of  the  regular 
lesson  is  more  fruitful  and  lasting  than  set  periods  for  drill,  but  the  latter  are 
necessary  at  times.  Each  fundamental  learned  should  be  recalled  by  some  method 
until  it  is  firmly  fixed. 

5.  Thought  work.  The  child  should  be  taught  in  analyze  problems  before 
attempting  their  solution.  He  should  be  trained  to  see  what  is  given,  what  is 
desired,  the  particular  type  of  problem,  and  the  process  required  in  its  solution. 

6.  Importance  of  fundamentals.  The  importance  of  the  four  funda¬ 
mentals  should  be  realized  since  they  are  the  foundation  of  all  future  work.  If 
they  are  poorly  taught,  the  pupil  will  always  have  trouble.  Adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying,  and  dividing  are  not  simple,  single  operations,  but  are  more  or  less 
complex.  Hence  it  is  very  important  that  the  teacher  sees  that  they  are  thor¬ 
oughly  understood. 

7.  Method  of  developing  a  new  process.  New  processes  should  be  devel¬ 
oped  first  objectively  and  concretely.  The  child  should  not  be  told  that  he  is 
taking  up  something  new,  but  should  be  led  up  to  it  through  othe  work  and 
before  he  realizes  it,  have  him  grasp  the  new  process. 

8.  Waste  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic.  The  waste  which  frequently 
occurs  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  usually  results  from  the  following: 

(a)  Teaching  subject  matter  that  lacks  practical  value. 


65 


(b)  Teaching  Mvithout  clear  aims  and  without  having  the  work  well 
planned. 

(c)  Teaching  what  the  pupil  already  knows. 

,d)  Teaching  without  training  in  how  to  make  the  best  use  of  one’s  time 
in  study. 

(e)  Drudgery  in  teaching  and  study,  such  as  drilling  in  a  subject  after 
pupils  have  learned  it  sufficiently  well,  teaching  or  studying  non-essen¬ 
tials,  etc. 

(f)  Unsystematic  drill. 

(g)  Waste  of  time  in  such  operations  as  roll  call,  passing  papers,  etc. 

(h)  Giving  assignments  not  bearing  on  the  main  point. 

(i)  Teaching  without  systematic  check  upon  deficiencies  and  attainments, 

(j)  Doing  too  much  for  the  pupil. 

(k)  Doing  too  little  for  the  pupil. 

9.  Assignments.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  make  proper  assign¬ 
ments.  A  part  of  the  recitation  period  should  be  taken  up  in  going  over  the  next 
lesson  in  order  to  see  that  the  class  clearly  understands  what  is  to  be  done.  This 
is  to  be  accomplished  not  by  merely  telling  the  children  what  to  do  and  how  to 
do  it,  but  by  making  the  aSvSignment  an  exercise  in  which  the  children  take  a 
lively  part  and  a  keen  interest.  Discussion  in  which  the  children  take  part  will 
reveal  the  points  which  need  to  be  made  clear  and  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
avoid  dwelling  on  the  points  which  they  already  understand.  The  lesson  after 
such  an  assignment  will  not  be  drudgery  to  the  child,  but  a  pleasurable  task. 

10.  Preliminary  work.  No  regular  work  in  arithmetic  should  be  given  in 
the  first  and  second  grades;  but  incidentally  and  in  connection  with  the  recita¬ 
tions  in  other  subjects  much  may  be  done  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  work  in 
arithmetic  to  be  taken  up  regularly  in  the  third  grade.  Such  words  as  large, 
small,  less,  more,  wide,  narrow,  and  the  like  will  occur  in  class  w^ork.  The 
difference  in  these  terms  should  be  shown  with  objects. 

The  numbered  pages  in  the  children’  primers,  the  number  of  windows  in  the 
school  room,  the  number  of  desks  in  a  row’  and  in  the  room,  the  number  of  children 
in  the  class,  the  number  of  houses  in  a  certain  block  or  along  a  certain  stretch 
of  roadway,  the  number  of  fields  on  a  certain  farm  and  the  number  of  domestic 
animals  of  any  certain  kind  on  a  farm  and  a  hundred  other  things  offer  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  the  wide-awake  teacher  to  develop  in  the  children  the  idea  of  number. 

In  the  same  way,  if  the  actual  measures  are  at  hand,  such  terms  as  pint,  quart, 
gallon,  inch,  foot,  yard,  ounce,  pound,  etc.,  may  be  taught.  While  the  face  of 
a  clock,  either  actual  or  carefully  drawn  on  the  blackboard  or  a  card,  can  be 
used  to  teach  a  few  of  the  Roman  numerals.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  opportunities 
will  arise  to  teach  a  few’  simple  fractions.  The  teacher  should,  how’ever,  keep  in 
mind  that  he  is  not  to  teach  numbe'’  in  these  grades  except  as  the  w’ork  grows 
naturally  out  of  the  children’s  other  activities. 

Third  Grade. 

Beginning  with  this  year  it  is  necessary  that  the  pupils  have  a  textbook  and 
that  a  regular  period  be  set  aside  for  work  in  arithmetic.  The  teacher  should 
be  careful,  however,  that  the  w’ork  does  not  become  formal  with  the  introduction 
of  the  text.  The  use  of  objects  to  teach  number  facts  should  be  freely  resorted  to. 

1.  Notation  and  Numeration.  The  pupils  should  learn  to  read  and  write 
numbers  through  1000,  and  Roman  numerals  to  L.  They  should  also  learn  to  read 


66 


and  write  numbers  involving  dollars  and  cents.  They  should  learn  to  begin 
at  any  digit  and  count  by  2’s  and  3’s  to  100,  to  count  to  100  by  6’s  and  8’s. 

2.  Addition.  The  pupils  should  learn  to  add  rapidly  and  accurately  in 
columns  of  eight  to  ten  figures.  The  most  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  two 
and  three  place  numbers.  The  addition  should  be  both  oral  and  written.  Teach 
the  term  “sum,”  but  not  the  term  “addend.” 

3.  Subtraction.  Emphasize  speed  and  accuracy.  Illustrate  freely  by  the 
use  of  objects  and  drawings.  Teach  such  terms  as  difference  and  remainder, 
but  not  such  terms  as  “minuend”  and  “subtrahend.” 

4.  Multiplication.  Teach  multiplication  by  one  figure  numbers.  Teach 
the  multiplication  tables  to  9  x  10. 

5.  Division.  Teach  division  by  one  figure  numbers. 

6.  Denominate  numbers.  Teach  and  illustrate  objectively  such  terms 
as  pint,  quart,  gallon;  quart,  peck,  bushel;  ounce,  pound;  inch,  foot,  yard; 
square  inch,  square  foot,  square  yard;  introduce  the  use  of  the  ruler,  and  other 
units  of  measure.  Do  not  tell  the  children  that  two  pints  make  a  quart,  but 
have  them  find  out  for  themselves.  Problems  should  never  involve  more  than 
one  step. 

7.  Fractions.  Teach  objectively  the  use  of  half,  third,  and  fourth.  Children 
in  this  grade  should  learn  to  add  and  subtract  easy  problems  involving  halves, 
third  and  fourths,  but  it  must  be  done  with  the  use  of  objects  or  drawings. 

8.  Textbook.  Complete  Part  II  of  Hamilton’s  Elementary  Arithmetic. 
Page  106.  The  teacher  should  have  two  or  three  other  good  books  for  this  grade. 

Fourth  Grade. 

This  grade  has  not  very  much  new  work.  The  teacher  of  this  grade  should 
study  the  third  grade  work  and  aim  to  extend  the  processes.  Considerable  review 
and  drill  should  be  given  in  this  year.  It  is  very  important  that  the  teacher 
use  good  judgment  to  see  that  this  does  not  become  drudgery. 

1.  Notation  and  Numeration.  The  pupils  should  learn  to  read  and 
wri  .e  numbers  to  10,000.  Roman  numerals  should  be  learned  to  C. 

2.  Addition.  Give  much  drill  in  addition.  The  difficult  combinations 
as  9+7,  8+5,  8+7,  7+4,  should  be  emphasized.  Pupils  must  learn  to  recognize 
at  sight  the  sum  of  groups  of  two  and  three  figures.  Numbers  of  three  and 
four  figures  and  six  to  eight  figures  in  a  column  may  be  added  in  this  year.  Have 
the  pupils  check  their  addition  by  adding  a  second  time  in  reverse  order. 

3.  Subtraction.  Teach  accurate  and  rapid  subtraction  of  three,  four 
and  five  place  numbers.  Teach  the  business  way  of  making  change — by  adding 
to  the  price  of  the  article  what  is  needed  to  complete  the  amount  of  money  given 
in  payment. 

4.  Multiplication.,  Teach  multiplication  of  three  and  four  place  numbers 
by  two  place  numbers.  Insist  on  speed  and  accuracy.  Teach  the  terms  mul¬ 
tiplier,  multiplicand,  and  product. 

5.  Division.  Teach  the  division  of  three  and  four  place  numbers  by  two 
place  numbers.  Insist  on  speed  and  accuracy.  Teach  the  use  of  the  terms 
divisor,  dividend,  and  quotient. 

6.  Denominate  Numbers.  Teach  the  measurement  of  time,  weight, 
length,  and  surface.  Have  measures  in  the  school  room  and  have  the  pupils 
get  an  understanding  of  the  terms  objectively.  Tables  have  no  value  unless 
there  is  a  definite  meaning  of  the  terms.  Teach  only  units  of  measurement 


67 


that  are  used  in  everyday  life.  Introduce  many  practical  measurements  in 
connection  with  the  tables.  The  pupils  should  learn  to  formulate  their  own 
problems  and  then  the  teacher  can  be  sure  they  have  an  understanding  of  them. 
For  example,  they  may  be  asked  to  state  a  problem  for  finding  the  cost  of  fenc¬ 
ing  a  field  at  a  given  cost  per  rod.  The  dimensions  may  be  assumed,  or  if  con¬ 
venient,  they  should  be  gotten  by  actual  measurement.  They  should  make 
actual  measurements  in  and  about  the  school  room  and  formulate  and  solve 
under  the  teacher’s  supervision  problems  about  the  cost  of  plastering  at  an 
assumed  cost  per  square  yard,  the  cost  of  the  flooring  at  an  assumed  cost  per 
thousand  square  feet.  Similarly,  weight  and  time  may  be  introduced  into  many 
practical  problems.  Facts  in  problems  should  be  true  to  business,  or  actual 
conditions. 

7.  Fractions.  Teach  the  add  tion  and  subtraction  of  halves,  fourths, 
eighths,  thirds,  sixths,  and  ninths.  Use  objects  such  as  the  diagrams  of  c  rcles, 
splints,  apples,  potatoes,  paper  cutting,  etc.,  to  teach  the  addition  and  sub¬ 
traction  of  fractions. 

8.  Textbook.  Complete  Part  III  of  Flamilton’s  Elementary  Arithmetic. 
Page  107-185.  Supplement  this  with  outside  practical  problems  and  other 
{ exts. 

Fifth  Grade 

1.  Notation  and  Numeration.  Teach  the  reading  and  writing  of  numerals 
through  1,000,000;  the  reading  and  writing  of  common  fractions  with  small 
denominators;  the  reading  and  writing  of  decimals  through  three  places;  the 
reading  and  writing  of  mixed  numbers,  using  “and”  in  reading  mixed  numbers 
only  between  the  whole  number  and  the  fraction;  the  reading  and  writing  of 
Roman  numerals  through  G,  and  the  numerals  D  and  M. 

2.  Four  Fundamentals.  Test  the  pupils  in  addition,  subtraction,  multi¬ 
plication,  and  division.  If  they  fall  below  the  standard,  give  them  drill  worK 
until  the  desired  proficiency  in  speed  and  accuracy  has  been  secured. 

3.  Denominate  Numbers.  Teach  the  tables  for  liquid  measure,  dry 
measure,  avoirdupois  weight,  time  measure,  and  linear  measure.  Problems 
should  never  involve  more  than- two  steps,  in  reduction. 

4.  Practical  Measurements.  Have  the  pupils  formulate  many  problems 
in  lengths,  surfaces  and  solids  and  solve.  They  should  do  considerable  measur¬ 
ing  in  order  to  get  data  for  their  problems.  After  the  measurements  have  been 
secured  have  them  make  drawing^  to  scale. 

5.  Fractions  Teach  the  reduction  of  common  fractions  to  higher  and 
lower  terms.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions  should 'be  taught  object¬ 
ively  by  the  use  of  paper  cutting,  diagram  of  circles,  rectangles,  and  lines.  Use 
small  denominators  in  teaching  fractions  objectively.  Do  not  continue  the 
use  of  the  objects  after  their  purpose  has  been  realized,  or  the  pupils  will  form 
the  bad  habit  of  depending  upon  them.  The  terms  numerator,  denominator, 
common  denominator  should  be  taught.  No  denominator  larger  than  100 
should  ever  be  used  and  rarely  ever  one  above  32,  hence  it  is  possible  to  find 
the  common  denominator  in  most  case  by  inspection.  Teach  the  reduction 
of  improper  fractions  to  mixed  numbers,  of  mixed  numbers  to  improper  frac¬ 
tions.  Teach  the  reduction  of  common  fractions  to  decimals  and  the  reduc¬ 
tion  of  decimals  to  common  fractions  when  the  denominator  will  be  less  than 
100.  Teach  thoroughly  the  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division 


68 


of  common  fractions  and  decimals.  Make  much  use  of  cancellation.  Connect 
the  use  of  decimals  with  problems  in  United  States  Money. 

6.  Bills  and  Receipts.  One  period  a  week  should  be  spent  in  making  out 
common  accounts,  bills,  and  receipts.  It  is  much  better  to  spread  this  work  over 
the  entire  year  than  to  concentrate  it  in  three  or  four  lessons.  It  will  become 
fixed  in  the  pupils’  minds  better  and  be  more  lasting,  and  vdll  give  an  opportunity 
to  use  wider  experience. 

7.  Percentage.  Devote  some  time  to  easy  problems  in  percentage.  This 
work  should  be  closely  related  to  the  work  in  common  and  decimal  fractions. 
Show"  the  pupils  that  it  contains  nothing  new  except  notation. 

8.  Interest.  Out  of  the  work  in  fractions  and  percentage  should  grow 
som^  simple  problems  in  interest.  It  should  here  be  made  clear  that  interest 
contains  no  new  principles. 

9.  Textbook.  Complete  Part  IV  in  Hamilton’s  Elementaiy  Arithmetic. 
Supplement  this  with  practical  problems. 

Sixth  Grade. 

In  this  year  the  pupils  should  finish  all  fhe  mathematics  that  is  used  in  the 
common  business  of  the  w'orld.  It  wall  of  course  be  necessary  that  their  mathe¬ 
matical  experience  be  very  limited.  The  chief  purpose  is  to  develop  skill  and 
accuracy  in  he  fundamental  operations,  in  order  that  a  future  advance  may 
be  secured.  All  cases  of  “arre  ted  development” — such  as  counting  while 
adding,  adding  instead  of  using  the  multiplication  combinations,  and  writing 
dowm  numbers  to  be  added  to  the  next  higher  order  in  multiplication — should 
be  corrected. 

1  Notat  on  and  Numeration.  Review  and  teach  all  forms  and  varieties 
of  notation  and  numeration. 

2.  Four  Fundamentals.  Test  the  pupils  in  addition,  subtraction,  mul¬ 
tiplication  and  division.  If  they  fall  below  the  standard,  give  them  drill  work 
until  the  desired  proficiency  in  speed  and  accuracy  have  been  secured. 

3.  Denominate  Numbers.  Teach  the  reduction,  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication  and  division  of  linear,  square  an3  cube  measure.  Review  the 
work  of  the  previous  grades. 

4.  Practical  Measurements.  Give  the  pupils  considerable  practice  in 
measuring  lengths,  surfaces,  and  solids.  Have  them  formulate  their  own  prob¬ 
lems  from  the  measurements.  The  problems  should  all  be  practical.  Have  pupils 
find  area  of  school  lot,  dimensions  of  school  room,  total  area  of  walls  and  ceiling, 
the  window"  space,  blackboard  space.  Have  them  bring  many  practical  prob¬ 
lems  from  home. 

5.  Fractions.  Give  drills  in  all  the  fundamental  operations.  Change 
common  fractions  to  decimals  and  decimals  to  common  fractions  Teach  the 
reading  of  decimals  to  six  places,  but  in  the  solution  of  practical  problems  have 
the  pupils  use  only  three  places  or  less.  Introduce  many  business  applications 
of  decimals. 

6.  Simple  Accounts.  There  should  be  at  least  one  period  a  w'eek  devoted 
to  the  keeping  of  simple  accounts.  If  the  children  have  money  to  spend,  they 
should  make  a  record  of  their  income  and  expenses.  If  the  pupils  wish  to  use 
tneir  family  grocery  bill,  this  will  furnish  excellent  data. 


Sample  Paje  of  Account  Book. 


1918 

Receipts 

1918 

Payments 

March 

2 

On  hand . 

.  .32.34 

March  4 

Book . 

.  30.50 

9 

Selling  papers. . . . 

.40 

8 

Car  fare . 

.25 

16 

Errands . 

.  1 5 

“  14 

Pencil . 

.05 

23 

Selling  papers. . . . 

.  •  .20 

“  31 

On  hand . 

.  2.39 

30 

Errands . 

.10 

S3.19  33.19 

7.  Percentage.  Make  many  simple  applications  of  decimal  and  common 
fractions  to  percentage.  Show  the  pupils  that  the  only  new  thing  in  percentage 
is  the  notation.  Make  little  use  of  the  terms  base,  rate,  and  percentage  as  these 
are  seldom  used  outside  of  the  school  room.  Use  the  tenns  percent,  interest, 
rate  of  interest,  as  these  are  used  in  real  life.  Only  two  kinds  of  problems  involv¬ 
ing  percent  should  be  used.  The  following  examples  illustrate  these — find  25 
percent  of  624;  25  is  what  percent  of  625?  Have  pupils  learn  the  percent  equiv¬ 
alents  for  1/2,  1/5,  1/6,  1/8,  1/10,  1/12,  2/3,  3/4,  3/8,  5/8,  7/8, 
1  /20.  These  percent  equivalents  should  be  made  as  automatic  as  the  mul¬ 
tiplication  tables. 

8.  Interest.  Teach  thoroughly  simple  problems  in  interest.  Do  not  teach 
several  methods,  but  teach  one  thoroughly.  The  simple  form  of  computing 
interest  for  one  year  and  then  multiplying  by  the  number  of  years  is  most  satis- 
factor\^ 

9.  Textbook.  Complete  Part  I  in  Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic.  This 
should  be  well  supplemented  with  practical  problems. 

Helpful  Books  on  the  Teaching  of  Arithmetic. 

Teachers  wishing  to  make  further  study  of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  are 
referred  to  the  following  books: 

The  Teaching  of  Mathematics — J.  W.  A.  Young,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 
New  York. 

How  to  Teach  Arithmetic — Brown  and  Coffman.  Row  Peterson  Sc  Co., 
Chicago. 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic — David  Eugene  Smith.  Ginn  and  Co.,  New 
York. 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic — ^A.  W.  Stamper.  American  Book  Co.,  Cincinnati. 

Special  Method  in  Arithmetic — ^McMurry.  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic — ^Henry  Suzzalo.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  New  York. 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic — Paul  Klapper.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Number  by  Development — John  G.  Gray.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


NATURE  STUDY. 


General  Statement. 

Even,-  teacher,  or  even.-  school  in  which  nature  study  is  taught,  should  be  a 
subscriber  to  the  Nature  Study  Re\-iew,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  The  teacher  or  school 
should  have  a  copy  of  Bailey’s  Nature  Study  Idea,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 
New  York  Cit\-;  Bigelow’s  How  Nature  Study  Should  be  Taught,  Hinds  Noble 
&  Co.,  New  York  City;  and  Coalter  and  Patterson’s  Practical  Nature  Study 
and  Elementary  Agriculture,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

This  journal  and  these  books  are  for  the  teacher.  They  w-ill  aid  in  planning 
and  organizing  the  work,  and  help  in  finding,  and  directing  the  pupils  to  find 
material  for  study. 

Nature  study  is  an  objective  study.  The  pupils  should  have  no  books;  it  is 
not  reading.  The  child  needs  a  rich,  concrete  background  for  the  study  of  geog¬ 
raphy,  agriculture,  hygiene  and  sanitation  Nature  study  properly  taught  wUl 
furnish  this  background,  and  give  the  child  an  intelligent  outlook  on  the  world. 
The  teacher  must  get  the  spirit  and  point  of  view  of  nature  study. 

Nature  Study  deals  with  common  objects  and  processes  as  they  directly  affect 
human  life  and  interests. 

Both  the  material  and  method  must  be  for  the  child  rather  than  for  the  adult. 

Guide  for  the  teacher  in  selecting  lesson  material: 

1.  Is  it  suitable  material? 

2.  Can  it  be  seen,  handled,  etc.? 

3.  Is  it  a  common  thing? 

4.  Does  it  have  many  common  interests?  Example — The  house-fly. 

The  main  purpose  is  to  get  the  child  to  sense,  image,  and  think  for  himself. 
A  study  of  nature  enables  the  child  to  grasp  the  forces  about  him  and  to  turn 
them  to  his  advantage. 

The  aim  should  be  to  awaken  an  interest  in  nature  and  to  give  a  general  ac¬ 
quaintance  with  it,  as  it  lies  nearest  to  the  children. 

The  children  should  be  brought  into  actual  contact  with  the  object  of  study, 
whenever  possible,  either  in  or  out  of  the  school  room.  Nature  study  is  a  study 
r natural  forces  and  natural  objects  in  their  natural  setting. 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  at  all  times  on  plants  and  animals  as  living  things, 
and  their  mutual  dependence  upon  each  other. 

In  the  lower  four  grades,  nature  study,  geography  and  hygiene  should 
be  taught  through  the  year  as  one  subject  and  in  one  way  or  another 
appear  on  every  day’s  program. 

The  lessons  may  afford  additional  material  for  language  and  composition 
work. 

In  rural  schools  all  the  children  in  Grades  I-II  should  be  grouped  together 
for  this  work. 

FIRST  GRADE. 

Fall. 

First-Grade  pupils  are  eager  to  watch  things  move  and  act — hence  they  Like 
to  study  birds,  chickens,  rabbits,  cats,  dogs,  etc.;  w^atch  a  rapidly  grov^dng  plant, 
or  note  the  effect  of  the  wind  on  smoke,  on  weather-vanes,  etc. 


71 


Birlds,  animals,  trees,  flowers,  insects,  pets,  earth  and  sky  should  be  the  general 
topics. 

■  Teach  only  the  facts  which  are  easily  within  the  child’s  comprehension. 

Birds:  Recognition  and  name  of  some  of  the  common  birds  of  the  locality, 
their  food  and  feeding  habits.  Encourage  the  children  to  feed  the  birds  and  to 
build  bird  houses.  Some  kinds  of  birds  leave  us  in  the  fall.  Why?  Note  the 
time  when  they  go.  Note  when  they  return. 

Trees:  Recognition  of  trees  by  leaf,  fruit,  bark.  Winter  buds,  their  color 
and  protection.  Study  the  kinds  of  fruit  grown  in  the  neighborhood. 

Field  Trip. 

Purpose:  To  identify  the  forest  tree  of  the  locality,  and  collect  specimens 
of  leaves,  bark,  and,  if  possible,  the  fruit. 

Note  to  Teacher:  Unless  the  trip  is  carefully  planned  and  both  the  object 
to  be  attained  and  the  method  of  procedure  are  definitely  fixed  in  mind  the  trip 
will  degenerate  into  a  mere  picnic  excursion  without  object  or  destination. 

Things  to  Observe:  Note  the  two  great  classes  of  trees,  evergreen  (like  the 
pine  or  cedar)  and  deciduous  (like  the  oak). 

Observe  the  bark  and  leaf  of  some  of  the  common  trees,  but  do  not  attempt 
too  many  at  one  trip.  It  will  lead  to  confusion  of  ideas. 

Collect  bark  and  leaves  and  fruit  when  possible.  This  material  may  serve 
for  language  and  drawing  lessons. 

Note  the  rings  on  the  end  of  a  log  that  has  been  sawed  squarely  across.  If  a 
log  cannot  be  found  have  one  or  more  of  the  boys  to  bring  to  school  blocks  sawed 
off  so  that  the  annual  growth  of  the  tree  may  be  seen. 

Look  for  diseased  trees.  How  are  they  injured? 

Try  to  find  a  place  where  trees  have  prevented  excessive  washing  of  hillside. 
Look  for  beautiful  trees  suitable  for  shade. 

School  Room  Work  Based  on  Field  Trip. 

Oral  story  of  trip  by  the  pupils. 

Have  pupils  who  can  write  make  a  list  of  trees  studied. 

A  written  composition  may  be  required  of  the  older  pupils. 

Have  pupils  draw  and  paint  leaves. 

The  teacher  may  think  of  other  ways  of  using  the  material  and  ideas  gained 
by  the  trip. 

Flowers:  Learn  the  names  and  means  of  recognizing  some  of  the  fall  flowers^ 
as  the  goldenrod,  aster,  geranium,  and  chrysanthemum. 

A  field  trip  migh  be  made  to  study  the  fall  weeds  and  fall  flowers. 

Have  children  save  flower  seeds  and  plant  in  the  spring. 

Plant  peach  pits  and  apple  seeds,  after  preparing  a  place  for  them  on  the 
school  grounds. 


School  Calendar. 

Have  a  school  calendar  on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  large  piece  of  cardboard. 
Have  children  observe  weather  conditions  and  fill  in  the  calendar  daily  so  that 
at  the  end  of  each  month  there  is  a  complete  record  of  wind,  rain,  sunshine, 
t  emperature,  etc. 


72 


See  model  for  home  geography  under  discussion  of  that  subject. 

Place  a  weather  vane  on  the  school  building.  Have  the  children  associate 
the  state  of  the  weather  with  the  direction  of  the  wind, 

Giet  Climatological  Data — U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Parkersburg,  W.  Va 

Winter. 

Birds:  Name  birds  hat  have  gone  since  'all  began.  Name  those  which 
remain. 

How  to  make  friends  with  the  birds.  Read  or  tell  bird  stories. 

Insects  Where  have  the^^  gon  '?  How  will  they  get  here  again  in  the  spring? 

Compare  the  winter  life  of  the  squirrel  and  the  rabbit. 

Plants  Where  are  the  wild  flowers  nowi' 

Call  attention  to  the  house  plants  and  the  care  that  is  given  them. 

Can  you  notice  any  difference  in  the  buds  of  the  trees  as  winter  goes  away? 
Look  closely  for  changes. 

Study  the  winter  coats  of  buds,  especially  of  the  yellow  linden  trees  and  the 
hickory. 

Compare  length  of  day  and  night  in  fall  and  winter.  What  effects  produced? 

Spring. 

Birds:  Find  out  the  names  of  the  newcomers.  Notice  w'hat  they  are  doing 
and  tell  only  w  hat  you  see. 

Watch  at  least  a  pair  of  birds  during  the  spring  and  summer  and  tell  the  com¬ 
plete  story  of  wiiat  you  see  them  do. 

Trees:  Note  changes  in  the  buds,  leaves,  etc. 

What  trees  leaf  first? 

Can  you  gather  and  preseiwe  the  seeds  of  the  elm,  the  willow,  the  maple,  the 
poplar? 

W'atch  for  the  aiipearance  of  the  apple  and  peach  seedlings,  and  care  for  them. 

Plant  seeds  of  maple,  elm,  willowy  and  poplar  in  the  school  garden,  and  care 
for  them.  Note  the  kinds  of  soil  these  trees  grow^  in  and  make  your  garden 
soil  like  it. 

Seeds:  Sprouting  of  seeds  observed;  the  differen.  ways  the  seeds  come 
out  of  the  ground;  parts  of  seedlings  (roots,  stems,  leaves);  uses  of  parts  of 
plants. 

Plant  seeds  of  the  Lima  bean  and  the  nasturtium,  and  learn  how'  to  care  for 
the  young  plants.  Try  to  raise  enough  seeds  for  the  children  to  pbnt  next  year, 
as  well  as  to  plant  in  the  home  garden. 

Arrange  to  ca^e  for  the  garden  during  vacation. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Fall. 

Second-grade  pupils  add  to  this  general  interest  in  action  in  the  first  grade  a 
personal  attitude  and  so  want  their  own  pets,  flowers,  discoveries,  etc,,  discussed. 
Individual  gardens  are  here  a  joy. 

Birds:  Recognition  and  names,  homes,  food  and  feeding  habits,  sounds  or 
calls;  enemies. 


73 


WTiat  new  names  can  you  add  to  the  list  of  birds  you  saw  since  last  Spring? 
Can  you  tell  anything  new'  about  the  habits  of  any  bird  you  have  previously 
observed? 

Will  you  find  out  all  you  can  about  the  partridge? 

Organize  a  “Bird  Club”  in  your  school.  Purpose  to  save  the  birds. 

Insects:  Recognition  and  name  of  cabbage  butterfly,  potato  beetle,  rose 
bug,  cricket,  grasshopper. 

Can  you  find  some  eggs  of  the  butterfly  and  w'atch  them  develop? 

Can  you  collect  some  caterpillars  and  w'atch  them  feed  and  develop? 

Can  you  collect  and  keep  some  cocoons  through  the  winter? 

Plants :  Can  you  add  some  new'  fall  flowers  to  your  list  made  a  year  ago? 
Examine  the  flow'ers  of  the  pumpkin,  the  red  clover,  the  sunflower,  the  morning 
glory,  the  aster,  and  tell  how'  they  differ  from  the  flow'ers  of  the  Lima  bean. 
Will  you  tr\'  to  draw'  them? 

Trees:  Can  you  tell  the  names  of  some  other  trees  you  have  learned  to  know' 
since  last  year? 

We  will  tr\'  to  learn  to  know'  the  trees  by  means  of  their  buds,  outline,  and 
bark  after  the  leaves  are  gone. 

Seeds:  Tell  some  w'ays  seeds  get  out  into  the  w'orld. 

Can  you  name  some  seeds  that  use  wings?  Some  that  steal  rides? 

Work  to  Do.  Save  seeds  of  pumpkin,  morning  gloiy',  sunflower  and  sweet 
pea  to  plant  next  spring. 

Plant  acorns  and  chestnuts  and  w'atch  development  in  the  Spring. 

Winter. 

Daily  observ^ations  of  weather  recorded  in  class  calendar. 

Locate  north  by  noonday  shadow,  east  and  west  by  rising  and  setting  of  sun. 
Difference  in  length  of  day  and  night  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Illustrate  freezing,  melting,  evaporation. 

The  sky:  WTiat  it  is;  its  color;  its  shape. 

Preparation  of  the  garden  for  Spring. 

Feeding  and  protecting  the  birds. 

Lessons  on  kindness  to  animals. 


Spring. 

Birds:  Migratory  birds;  ducks  and  geese,  phoebe,  swallow,  robin,  bluebird, 
'blackbird,  catbird,  humming-bird,  scarlet  tanager,  oriole. 

Special  study  of  one  kind  of  bird. 

Protection  of  birds.  Birds  are  the  farmer’s  friends. 

Made  a  study  of  the  hen,  as  to  breed,  color,  size,  uses  and  care. 

Plants:  Watch  for  the  spring  flowers  and  try  to  name  them  as  they  appear. 
A  love  of  flowers  should  be  cultivated. 

Development  of  Bulbs:  Onion,  hyacinth,  tulip,  crocus. 

Bulbs  placed  in  moist  saw'-dust,  soil  or  water;  observ'ation  of  the  development 
-of  roots,  stems  and  leaves. 

Animals:  Frog  or  toad;  development  from  egg.  Its  use  to  man.  Its  pro- 
•tection.  Continue  the  observation  of  any  other  animal  previously  observed  in 
'Which  the  children  are  interested*  as  the  horse  or  cow. 


74 


The  Soil :  Observe  the  effects  of  freezing  on  the  soil.  Running  water.  Where 
the  best  soil  is  found  and  why. 

The  need  of  good  soil  may  be  shown  by  cultivation  of  seedlings  or  plants 
in  saw-dust,  in  sand,  and  in  rich  loam. 

Climate:  Note  the  effects  of  the  length  of  the  day  on  the  temperature. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Fall. 

Third- grade  pupils  add  imagination  to  that  of  first  and  second-grade  pupils, 
and  enjoy  personification  of  objects  in  nature,  loving  best  those  which  can  be 
played  with  or  which  have  stories — pansy  faces,  sweet-pea  bonnets,  Greek,  Norse, 
and  Indian  interpretations  of  nature. 

Birds:  Continue  the  study  as  time  permits. 

Recognition  and  name  of  the  resident  birds — woodpecker,  owl,  blue-jay,  crow, 
wild  canary,  cardinal,  nuthatch,  etc. 

Plants:  Study  how  to  shape  the  plant  by  the  selection  of  the  seed. 

How  seeds  are  protected  while  ripening;  adaptation  for  dispersal  by  wind, 
water,  birds,  hairy  animals. 

Collection  of  dry  fruits  to  show  form  and  method  of  seed  dispersal. 

Field  Trip. 

Purpose:  To  observe,  study  and  collect  specimens  of  weeds  and  dry  fruits. 

Note:  Take  also  the  larger  pupils,  and  have  them  keep  a  record  of  the  weeds' 
examined. 

Things  to  Observe  Where  the  greatest  variety  of  weeds  are  found,  near 
buildings  and  roads  or  in  the  open  fields?  Why?  Notice  the  variety  of  ways  in> 
which  weeds  bear  their  seeds. 

Special  arrangement  of  plants  for  dispersal  of  seeds.  How  many  seeds  does 
one  weed  produce? 

Will  weeds  of  a  certain  kind  be  more  plentiful  in  a  field  where  crops  have  been 
grown  year  after  year? 

Have  upper  grade  pupils  classify  weeds  according  to  their  length  of  life. 

1.  Annuals  are  those  wh  ch  spring  from  seeds,  blossom,  fruit,  produce- 
seeds  and  die  down  the  first  season  (as  the  ragweed). 

2.  Biennials  grow  the  first  season  without  blossoming,  usually  storing 
up  food  in  their  roots,  blossom  and  seed  the  following  season  and  then  die  down 
completely  (as  the  burdock  and  wild  carrot,  etc). 

3.  Perennials  live  and  blossom  year  after  year  (as  the  dandelion,  plantain, 
etc.). 

Note:  Write  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  Farmer’s 
Bulletin,  No.  28,  “Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them;”  No.  86,  “Thirty  Poisonous 
Plants;”  No.  195,  “Annual  Flowering  Plants.”  Write  to  College  of  Agriculture, 
Morgantown,  West  Virginia. 

Classify  weeds  according  to  ways  of  spreading  or  planting  their  seeds;  that 
is,  by  means  of  the  wind,  water,  animals,  mechanical  contrivances  or  artificial 
means. 

The  Weather :  Note  the  changes  that  take  place  about  us  with  the  coming  of 
winter.  The  ways  that  we  prepare  for  winter.  Make  a  record  of  the  thermometer 
readings.  Continue  the  weather  calendar. 


75 


Winter. 

Study  of  vegetables  in  the  store.  Know  what  is  in  the  home  markets  and  what 
is  not  produced  at  home. 

Transportation  of  products  and  disposition  of  them. 

Kinds  of  soil — clay,  sand. 

A  study  of  trees  for  building  materials. 

Study  land  surfaces,  and  the  effects  of  weathering. 

Record  of  weather  observations. 

Life  and  habits  of  common  wild  animals  in  winter,  fox,  squirrel,  etc. 

Spring. 

Natural  Phenomena:  The  sun,  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  water  and  soil,, 
and  on  plant  and  animal  life;  changes  of  seasons. 

Cultivation  of  Plants:  The  needs  of  plants.  Propagation  of  plants  by  seed, 
by  slips,  by  runners;  gro\slh  of  roots  of  slip  in  water. 

Demonstration:  When  does  sap  ooze  through  stem  and  leaves?  Why  do- 
leaves  wilt?  How  do  leaves  move  with  reference  to  light? 

Recognition  and  name  of  trees,  plants  and  flowers. 

Plant  for  special  study;  Corn. 

Lesson  Plans. 

The  great  fault  of  formal  nature  study  has  been  indefiniteness,  no  plan. 

A  lesson  plan  should  have  a  definite  aim  all  the  way  through  it. 

Three  questions  to  ask  in  preparing  a  lesson  plan. 

1.  Is  this  material  suitable? 

2.  How  is  this  plant  or  animal  to  take  care  of  itself? 

3.  How  does  it  affect  human  life  and  how  can  we  help  it  do  its  work? 

4.  Any  interesting  point  not  brought  out  by  the  other  three. 

Below  are  given  some  lesson  plans  which  it  is  hoped  will  aid  the  teacher  by 
their  suggestions. 

The  Dog  (Second  Grade). 

Aim:  To  teach  sympathetic  interest  in  the  dog. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Introductory  talks  about  each  child’s  dog.  Kinds  of  dogs.  How  can  you; 
tell?  Name  other  dogs. 

2.  What  have  you  seen  the  dog  do?  How  does  he  make  his  living?  How  does 
he  help  us?  How  can  we  help  him? 

3.  Harm  some  dogs  do. 

4.  How  tell  a  sick  dog  from  a  well  dog? 

5.  Tell  or  read  some  good  dog  story. 

The  Common  Toad. 

Aim:  To  see  the  toad  and  learn  of  its  usefulness  to  man. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

With  the  toad  before  the  class,  either  in  a  screened  box,  or  in  a  tumbler 
covered  with  netting — the  cage  filled  with  insects  of  all  sorts,  talk  with  the- 
children  about  as  follows: 

How  does  a  toad  drink? 


76 


Do  we  like  animals  that  help  or  harm  us?  What  things  eat  our  garden  vege¬ 
tables? 

Wouldn’t  a  pet  be  fine  that  would  eat  these  pests? 

Here  is  one.  Let  me  introduce  him  to  you. 

What  do  you  think  of  his  appearance? 

Look  at  his  eye.  Teach  children  that  toads  do  not  make  warts. 

Speak  of  his  value.  Observe  the  number  of  things  he  eats. 

How  can  we  m  ke  greater  use  of  toads  in  tlie  garden? 

Build  a  toad  house  in  the  garden. 

Window  Gardens. 

Aim:  To  teach  how  to  make  and  to  find  pleasure  in  window  gardens. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  The  boys  should  make  a  box  to  fit  the  window  sill.  Place  it  upon  blocks 
and  have  oil-cloth  under  it  to  prevent  water  from  damaging  the  wood. 

2.  Place  small  stones,  sand  and  moss  in  the  bottom  to  about  the  depth 
of  the  box.  b'ill  the  box  with  rich,  sandy  loam. 

3.  Plant  flower  seeds,  bulbs,  cuttings,  etc. 

4.  Water  every  day  and  keep  the  surface  loose. 

Brook  Studies  (Third  and  Fourth  Grades). 

Aim:  To  learn  the  nature  and  life  along  the  streams. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

Several  excursions  may  be  made  to  a  stream,  each  time  with  one  or  more  of  the 
following  aims: 

1.  Make  exact  measurements  of  length  and  width. 

2.  List  the  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  etc.,  by  and  in  the  stream. 

3.  Record  the  animal  life  seen  in  or  near. 

4.  Make  a  map  of  a  section  of  the  stream  and  land  near. 

5.  What  farms  or  home  grounds  touch  it? 

6.  Changes  which  occur  in  its  course  from  time  to  time. 

7.  Land  it  drains,  its  source,  mouth,  tributaries. 

8.  Soi's  along  its  course. 

9.  Condition  of  water  for  fish  and  use  of  man. 

The  Robin  (Third  and  Fourth  Grades). 

Aim:  To  see  and  to  learn  the  habits  and  value  of  the  robin. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Go  out  with  the  class  near  a  robin’s  nest.  Sit  down  and  watch. 

2.  Recognize  the  robin  by  song  and^appearance. 

3.  Where  does  the  robin  like  to  be?  Why? 

4.  WTiat  have  you  seen  the  robin  do? 

5.  When  does  it  sing  most?  Try  to  imitate  the  song. 

6.  Where  does  it  nest?  Out  of  what  is  the  nest  made?  Number  and  color 
of  its  eggs. 

7.  What  does  the  robin  eat?  Is  it  our  friend?  Why? 

8.  Can  the  robin  be  tamed?  How  can  we  help  the  robin? 

9.  What  are  the  robin’s  enemies?  How  can  we  protect  it? 


77 


10.  The  legend  of  the  “Red-Breast.” 

11.  Refer  to  Readers  for  robin  stories. 

The  Coddling  Moth  (Fourth  Grade). 

Aim:  To  become  acquainted  with  the  moth  and  to  learn  of  its  injurious' 
work. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Have  some  knotty  apples  for  the  class  and  show  the  worms  in  these  apples. 
Cause  the  children  to  understand  that  these  apples  would  be  perfect  if  the  worms 
had  not  got  into  them. 

2.  Tell  the  life  histor>’^  of  the  moth.  Ask  the  children  to  look  behind  the  loose 
bark  of  the  apple  trees  to  find  the  silken  pod  in  which  the  larva  stays  during 
the  winter. 

Lead  the  children  to  see  that  it  would  be  well  to  scrape  off  thi>  loose  bark  in 
winter  and  whitewash  the  t-unk  of  the  tree. 

3.  How  many  have  seen  woodpeckers  picking  into  the  bark  of  the  apple  tree? 

4.  Tell  of  the  work  of  spraying. 

Leaves  of  Common  Trees  (Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Grades). 

Aim:  To  learn  the  names  of  five  common  trees  as  distinguished  by  leaves, 
and  learn  what  leaves  are  for. 

Subject  Matte~  and  Method: 

1.  Have  each  child  bring  leaves  from  five  different  trees  or  go  with  the  children 
to  gather  them. 

2.  Have  children  fasten  the  leaves  on  a  sheet  of  paper  or  cardboard  and  write 
the  names  of  the  leaves  below.  Classify  them  as  to  shape,  size,  color,  and  margins. 

3.  Let  each  child  stand  before  the  class  and  name  his  leaves  and  tell  where 
he  got  them. 

4.  After  becoming  familiar  with  the  five  leaves  ask : 

“What  docs  the  leaf  do?” 

“What  are  the  leaves  good  for?” 

“What  becomes  of  them?” 

5.  Read  some  simple  poems  about  leaves. 

6.  Drawing  lesson  on  leaves  may  follow. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Fall. 

Fourth-grade  children  become  somewhat  more  literal-minded  and  want 
facts,  enjoy  noting  general  relationships,  as,  for  example,  that  gourds,  cante- 
loupes,  pumpkins,  watermelons,  etc.,  belong  to  one  family;  that  clouds,  rain, 
snow,  hail,  frost,  dew,  and  condensed  water  on  the  outside  of  a  cold  pitcher, 
are  related;  or  that  the  domestic  cat  is  worth  studying  as  a  representative  of  a 
large  family  of  animals  possessed  of  similar  characteristics. 

Note:  Nature  Study  and  Home  Geography  should  be  the  same  course  in 
the  fourth  grade.  Both  should  consist  of  obser\^ations. 

Plants:  Woody  plants;  industries  dependent  on  forests;  plants  without 
wood;  u!r,eful  plant  products;  protection  of  trees. 


78 


Trees :  Uses  to  tree,  of  bark,  of  wood,  and  of  pith;  annual  rings  and  medullary 
rays.  (Study  cross  and  long  sections  of  piece  of  wood);  uses  of  heart  wood 
and  sap  wood  to  plants  and  to  man;  movements  of  sap  (maple);  blossoming 
and  fruit,  formation  of  fruit  and  shade  trees;  uses  of  wood  in  building  and  in 
furniture  (collections);  use  of  trees  in  producing  rainfall.  Emphasize  the  pro¬ 
tection  and  planting  of  trees. 

Forms  of  Stems:  Erect,  prostrate,  climbing  by  tendrils,  twining  by  stems 
or  petiole;  why  plants  seek  erect  position;  underground  stems  (potato)  and 
bulbs  (onion) ;  uses  of  stored  nourishment  to  plants. 

Plant  products  useful  to  man. 

Vegetables  classified  as  roots,  stems,  leaves,  bulbs  or  fruits. 

Fruits  classified  as  fleshy,  stone,  and  dry. 

Medicines  and  spices;  bark,  leaves,  sap,  extracts. 

Clothing;  cotton,  linen. 

Woods;  those  used  for  building,  or  furniture;  characteristics  which  fit  them 
for  such. 

Winter. 

Animals  useful  to  man;  birds,  bats,  toads,  frogs,  fish,  turtles,  lady-bugs, 
beetles,  dragon-flies,  bees,  sheep,  cow,  goat,  ox,  house,  donkey,  mule,  etc.  Par¬ 
ticular  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  their  value  to  man; 

1.  As  destroyers  of  injurious  insects. 

2.  As  the  source  of  supply  of  useful  materials,  including  materials  for  cloth¬ 
ing,  food,  furniture,  and  ornaments. 

3.  As  beasts  of  burden. 

Animals  Harmful  to  Man. 

Cut-worm,  potato  beetle,  cabbage  worm,  leaf  rollers,  plant  lice,  gypsy  moth, 
coddling  moth,  beetles,  tent  caterpillars,  canker  worms,  cloth  moths,  cock¬ 
roach,  flies,  bedbugs,  ants,  mosquitoes,  snails,  slugs,  rats,  mice,  etc.  Particular 
emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  their  injuries  to  man;  harmful  stages;  exter¬ 
mination  ;  work  of  the  government  in  destroying  pests. 

Field  Trip. 

Purpose:  To  study  how  soil  is  made. 

State  to  the  pupils  that  it  is  the  intention  to  take  a  field  excursion  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  how  soils  are  made,  and  that  the  field  trip  will  be  along  the 
bed  of  a  little  stream  or  creek,  starting  in  the  lower  valley  and  following  the 
stream  towards  its  source  on  higher  ground. 

Have  pupils  take  tablet  or  note  book  and  copy  the  following  as  it  is  written 
on  the  blackboard. 


Things  to  Observe. 

Where  (near  the  source  or  toward  the  mouth)  do  you  find  the  bed  of  the  stream 
covered  mostly  with  sand?  Where  mostly  with  rounded  rocks  or  gravel?  Where 
mostly  with  large  flat,  jagged  rocks? 

Notice  holes  or  grooves  worn  in  rocks. 

Try  to  find  rocks  which  have  been  split  open  by  freezing  and  thawing. 


79 


Look  for  roots  of  trees  which  have  grown  n  rock  crevices  and  have  split  them 
open.  Find  stones  that  are  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens.  Have  the  pupils 
scrape  off  the  lichens  from  the  rock  and  note  the  dissolving  effect  which  the 
roots  have  had  upon  the  rock’s  surface. 

Notice  places  where  roots  or  sods  have  kept  the  soil  from  washing  away. 

Have  some  of  the  boys  collect  samples  il)  of  the  rounded-off  stones  or  gravel; 
(2)  a  sample  of  sand;  (3)  sample  of  the  extremely  fine  sand  mixed  with  decay¬ 
ing  leaves,  etc.,  or  ordinary  mud;  (4)  samples  of  the  different  soils  found  on 
the  trip. 

Keep  the  pupils  near  you  on  the  trip  and  when  the  stream  is  reached  proceed 
rather  slowly  up  stream  in  order  to  observe  closely 

By  judicious  questioning  draw  attention  to  the  points  which  are  to  be  observed, 
always  giving  opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  make  the  discoveries  themselves 
if  possible. 

As  each  point  is  noted  have  the  pupils  check  it  off  on  their  list  of  things  to  be 
observed. 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  as  the  walk  proceeds  or  may  be  saved 
until  the  following  day: 

1.  What  means  do  farmers  employ  to  prevent  their  hillside  fields  from  being 
washed? 

2.  Do  tree  and  grass-covered  hills  wash  as  badly  as  bare  cultivated  hill? 
Why? 

3.  Name  all  the  ways  in  which  nature  has  broken  the  rocks  down  into  fine 
sand. 

4.  Does  very  fine  sand  make  good  soil?  What  must  be  mixed  with  it  before 
it  is  good  soil? 

5.  What  must  be  mixed  with  clay  soil  to  make  a  loam  soil? 

Upon  returning  to  the  school  house  the  specimens  may  be  labeled  and  placed 
upon  the  specimen  shelf. 

The  language  lesson  for  the  following  day  may  consist  of  compositions  on 
either  “Our  Walk  Along  the  Stream,”  or  “How  Soil  is  Formed,”  and  the  various 
points  observed  during  the  trip  must  be  spoken  of  in  the  composition.  The 
compositions  may  be  made  into  booklet  form  with  attractive  covers  and  perhaps 
illustrated  with  pasted  clippings  from  papers  or  magazines.  When  so  prepared 
they  make  very  attractive  exhibit  material. 

Spring. 

The  Home  and  School  Garden:  The  school  garden  is  the  laboratory  of 
nature  study.  In  it  almost  every  phase  of  nature  study  can  find  a  place.  It 
may  be  made  a  source  of  delight  to  the  pupils. 

The  next  best  thing  is  to  have  the  home  garden.  It  is  possible  in  every  school 
if  the  school  lasts  till  April.  Have  the  children  go  home  and  make  the  same 
kind  of  garden  as  at  school.  It  may  be  on  a  larger  scale. 

The  teacher  should  go  to  the  homes  and  see  them. 


80 


Reward  those  who  have  the  best  gardens. 

Many  idle  children  might  be  kept  busy  and  happy  at  home  in  the  garden. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  garden.  When  grown  they  will  have  the  garden 
habit. 

There  can  be  no  objection  made  to  the  garden  from  the  standpoint  of  health, 
finance,  harmony,  or  pleasure. 

Organize  corn  and  tomato  clubs,  and  prepare  to  have  the  work  carried  out 
among  the  boys  and  girls  during  the  summer. 

Prepare  for  a  garden  exhibit  at  the  beginning  of  school  next  fall. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Introduction. 

Geography  is  the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man.  From  it  we  learn 
how  man  adjusts  himself  to  his  environment;  the  manner  in  which  he  use  the 
resources  which  nature  offers  him  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  livelihood;  the 
intelligence  which  he  uses  in  order  to  use  these  advantages  most  effectively 
for  the  good  of  himself  and  those  dependent  upon  him;  the  interdependence  of 
men,  increasing  steadily  with  the  advance  of  civilization,  and  the  laws  which 
control  these  processes. 

Geography  is  also  a  gateway  to  the  sciences,  such  as  agriculture,  geology, 
botany,  chemistry  and  astronomy.  Through  its  study,  we  are  led  out  into 
that  vast  field  of  resources  upon  which  these  subjects  are  based,  and  a  knowledge 
of  which  so  vitally  affects  the  habits  and  industries  and,  to  a  very  large  extent, 
determines  the  trend  of  thought  of  the  races  of  men. 

By  giving  students  a  knowledge  of  location  of  places  of  common  interest, 
directions,  distances,  and  maps.  Geography  acts  as  a  key  of  understanding  for 
much  of  our  daily  reading  and  intercourse.  This  important  contribution  of 
the  subject  should  not  be  under-estimated. 

Teachers  should  therefore  especially  emphasize  the  value  of  this  subject,  and 
be  not  content  in  presenting  it  to  the  pupils  unless  it  is  done  thoroughly  and  well. 


FOURTH  GRADE. 

Outline  (First  Half  Year). 

Method :  No  book  is  to  be  used.  The  knowledge  in  this  grade  is  to  be  gained 
from  actual  observations  in  the  region  of  the  home. 

Purpose:  To  furnish  the  child  through  observation  and  experience  with 
such  fundamental  ideas  as  will  help  him  to  form  correct  notions  of  the  countries 
or  regions  which  he  has  not  seen. 


Seasons. 

Observations :  Beginning  in  September  with  the  autumnal  equinox,  a  series 
of  weeldy  or  monthly  observations  should  be  started  and  carried  on  through  the 
year  with  the  purpose  of  determining:  (1)  Time  of  sunrise  and  sunset,  with 
varying  lengths  of  day  and  night.  (2)  The  altitude  of  the  sun  at  mid-day, 
or  angle  of  sun’s  rays  as  shown  by  the  length  of  shadow  by  a  vertical  post. 

A  record  should  be  kept  of  these  observations.  Special  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  accurate  observations  on  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes  (March 
21st  and  September  22nd),  and  the  winter  and  summer  solstices  (December 
21st  and  June  22nd). 

While  making  these  observations,  the  directions,  north,  south,  east  and  west 
should  be  taught.  The  expressions  “up”  for  north  and  “down”  for  south 


82 


should  never  be  used.  As  the  observ^ations  proceed,  the  pupil  will  see  that 
the  sun  rises  exactly  in  the  east  and  sets  exactly  in  the  west  only  at  the  time  of 
the  equinoxes.  He  should  learn  to  think  of  north  as  the  direction  in  which  the 
shadow  of  a  vertical  post  falls  at  noon.  On  many  occasions  and  from  many 
places  about  the  school  premises  pupils  should  be  asked  to  point  to  directions. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  these  observations  should  be  summarized  and  a 
conclusion  reached  as  to  the  cause  of  the  change  of  seasons.  The  pupil  should  be 
able  to  see  that  summer  is  warmer  than  winter  because  the  days  are  longer,  the 
nights  shorter,  and  the  sun’s  rays  nearer  vertical,  and  that  change  of  seasons  is 
due  to  the  changing  length  ^'f  day  and  night  and  the  changing  angle  of  the  sun’s 
rays.  That  vertical  rays  heat  more  than  slanting  rays  will  usually  be  demon¬ 
strated  by  a  single  day’s  observ'ation  of  the  difference  in  temperature  between 
sunrise  and  noon.  The  above  explanation  of  seasons  is  the  only  one  that  can  be 
made  in  the  child’s  experience  and  the  only  one  that  should  be  attempted  in 
this  grade. 

Weather  Observations. 

Parallel  with  the  above  observations,  a  simple  record  of  weather  obser\^ations 
should  be  kept.  This  should  include  the  condition  of  the  sky,  temperature, 
precipitation,  direction  of  wind,  etc.,  for  each  day  in  the  school  year. 

Remarks:  Under  remarks  a  record  of  many  interesting  phenomena  may  be 
kept,  such  as  first  snow,  first  robin,  wild  geese  flying  north,  first  violet,  etc. 

Aim  to  associate  wind  directions  with  condition  of  the  sky,  temperature,  moist¬ 
ure  and  rainfall,  and  to  determine  what  winds  give  us  clearest  skies  and  coolest 
weather;  or  warmer  temperature,  cloudy  skies  and  rain,  or  our  heavy  snow 
storms. 


The  Surface  of  Land. 

These  are  to  be  studied  through  field  trips  and  excursions,  each  trip  or  excur¬ 
sion  being  carefully  planned  in  advance  by  the  teacher. 

Study  the  slopes  between  the  school  house  and  the  pupils’  homes.  Have  the 
children  decide  which  is  easiest  to  travel  over.  Hence  the  relation  of  slopes 
to  roads. 

Study  the  vi  .w  to  be  seen  from  the  school  house  windows,  or  in  the  nearest 
playground  or  field.  Emphasize  irregularity  of  surface. 

Learn  the  names  of  the  local  features.  Give  terms  like  hill,  plain,  valley, 
gully,  gorge  or  canyon,  divide,  alluvial  fan,  after  the  form  has  been  studied. 

Show  as  fully  as  possible  how  people  depend  upon  slopes.  Study  the  loca¬ 
tion  of  towns  with  reference  to  slopes.  Select  certain  buildings  and  study  their 
location,  as  the  church  on  a  hill,  a  store  where  roads  meet. 

Study  distribution  of  trees  and  note  the  relation  of  occupations  to  slopes  in 
local  landscapes. 

As  far  as  possible,  give  illustrations  of  variety  of  forms  from  your  home  state 
by  means  of  photographs  to  be  found  in  railroad  time  tables  and  folders.  Show 
views  from  other  illustrations  to  bring  out  the  point  that  similar  forms  are  found 
in  other  distant  regions. 

Have  the  children  summarize  the  local  landscape  features  by  means  of  defini¬ 
tions  made  by  themselves. 


83 


The  Water  on  the  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Note  the  necessity  of  water  for  plants,  animals  and  people.  Tell  how  drinking 
water  is  obtained  in  your  home  locality.  Explain  wells,  or  springs,  or  city  water 
:  upply. 

Study  the  water  of  a  stream  and  note  the  sediment  contained.  Discuss  the 
origin  of  sediment. 

Follow  changes  of  surface  form  due  to  running  water;  study  a  local  valley  as 
to  width,  depth,  quality  of  slope;  study  the  rapidity  of  flow  on  different  slopes 
1  nd  note  falls,  rapids,  and  lakes,  if  any  are  to  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood. 

Study  parts  of  a  stream  and  develop  definitions  associated  with  local  water 
courses  and  valleys. 

Study  uses  of  water  in  commerce,  manufacturing,  and  irrigation. 

The  Soils. 

Observe  the  weathering  of  rocks,  the  crumbling  banks,  the  rusting  of  tools 
to  show  how  rocks  decay  and  form  soil. 

Have  a  box  of  soil  in  the  room  and  study  its  fineness,  color,  feeling,  and  the 
way  it  takes  up  water. 

Test  the  different  kinds  of  soil  by  having  the  children  plant  seeds  and  compare 
results. 

If  possible,  study  a  soil  section  out  of  doors.  Notice  the  layers  of  soil  and  sub¬ 
soil  in  excavations  and  railway  cuts. 

Show  how  soil  is  necessary  to  plants  and  study  effects  of  running  water  on 
soils. 

Discuss  means  of  retaining  the  soil  on  slopes. 

Occupations. 

Find  out  the  leading  industries  of  the  locality,  their  location  and  importance. 

Study  the  need  of  the  division  of  labor  in  families  and  communities.  Have 
the  pupils  work  out  the  number  of  different  occupations  that  contribute  to  their 
needs. 

Illustrate  agriculture  by  window  gardening  or  school  plots.  Make  a  study 
of  the  various  crops  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  the  soil  upon  which  they  grow, 
the  manner  of  harv^esting  these  crops  and  the  uses  made  of  them. 

Illustrate  grazing  by  observ^ation  of  cattle,  sheep  or  horses.  Determine  what 
lands  are  suitable  for  grazing  and  what  grasses  are  best. 

Study  manufacturing  in  any  factory  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
grist  mill,  saw  mill,  creamer>%  brick  yard,  and  foundry,  are  typical  in  that  the 
manufacturing  plant  is  stationary  and  the  raw  material  must  be  transported 
to  the  power  or  the  factory. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the  conditions  necessary'  for  manufacturing  are: 
■(1)  Power,  such  as  water  power,  steam,  gasoline  and  electricity.  (2)  Raw  material. 
(3)  Food  supply  for  employees.  (4)  Labor.  (5)  Commercial  facilities,  wagons, 
freight  cars  or  vessels  which  bring  raw  material  to  the  factory  and  take  away 
the  manufactured  product. 

Bring  out  the  advantage  of  money  as  representing  wealth  and  as  an  aid  to 
commerce. 


84 


Transportation  and  Commerce. 

Study  local  trade.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  commerce  grows  out  of  diversity 
of  needs  which  in  turn  grows  largely  out  of  diversity  of  occupations. 

Show  how  transportation  involves  distance  and  direction.  Have  the  pupils 
to  prepare  lists  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured  articles  exported  from  and 
imported  into  the  neighborhood. 

Have  the  pupils  find  out  the  kind  of  plows,  buggies,  binders,  sewing  machines, 
apd  other  articles  of  farm  and  household  use,  and  where*  they  are  made.  In  this 
way  the  connection  may  be  made  between  the  home  section  and  distant  sections. 

Study  means  of  transportation  and  the  effect  of  good  roads  as  an  aid  to  com¬ 
merce  and  happier  living.  • 

Products  of  the  World  Brought  to  us  Through  Commerce. 

Have  the  children  make  lists  of  products  used  by  them  that  come  from  a 
distance. 

Tell  the  children  stories  about  some  of  the  distant  regions  of  the  earth  that 
supply  them  with  necessities,  such  as  coffee  from  Brazil,  tea  from  China  and 
Japan,  and  rubber  from  the  Amazon  valley. 

Rice,  bananas,  coffee,  cocoa,  valuable  woods,  rubber,  and  quinine  will  show  the 
relation  of  home  locality  to  southern  North  America  and  northern  South  America. 

H  des  and  meat  products  will  illustrate  our  relation  to  southern  South  America; 
furs,  the  colder  parts  of  North  America  and  Eurasia;  olives,  olive  oil,  cheese, 
embroidery,  and  linen  from  Europe;  silk,  spices,  pepper,  tea,  and  rugs  from 
Asia;  ivory  and  diamonds  from  Africa;  and  wool  from  Australia  will  show 
the  relations  to  these  countries. 

Select  the  product  the  children  have  seen  or  heard  about.  Make  a  brief  study 
of  the  lives  of  the  people,  of  climate  and  of  plant  and  animal  life  in  each  region 
considered.  Compare  with  home  locality. 

The  pupils  have  found  that  the  home  region  is  dependent  upon,  and  con¬ 
tributes  to,  many  other  regions  in  furnishing  man  with  food,  clothing,  shelter, 
and  the  other  necessities  of  life.  It  is  because  of  this  mutual  dependence 
that  these  distant  regions  should  be  known. 

Maps  and  Mapping. 

The  ability  to  read  and  use  a  map  is  of  permanent  value  to  the  pupil.  A  map 
is  not  a  picture.  The  features  presented  on  it  are  represented  by  means  of  sym¬ 
bols  which  often  have  no  resemblance  to  the  features  themselves.  The  map 
work  in  this  grade  should  make  the  child  familiar  with;  (1)  The  things  and 
geographical  features  themselves.  (2)  The  use  of  symbols  by  which  these  features 
are  represented  upon  maps.  The  pupil  should  not  be  required  to  use  a  symbol 
in  mapping  until  he  has  become  familiar  through  observation,  experience  or 
pictures,  with  the  things  symbolized. 

The  first  maps  made  by  the  child  should  be  of  things  and  places  so  familiar 
to  him  that  neither  time  nor  attention  need  be  spent  upon  the  things  them¬ 
selves  but  upon  the  idea  of  representing  them  by  symbols.  A  map  or  plan  of 
the  school  room  or  school  yard  should  first  be  drawn.  From  the  first  let  the 
maps  be  drawn  to  a  scale — a  half  or  quarter  of  an  inch  on  the  paper  representing 
a  foot,  yard,  or  rod  on  the  region  mapped.  As  the  observation  work  is  extended 


85 


so  as  to  include  streams,  valleys,  hills,  alluvial  fans,  etc.,  the  mapping  of  these 
various  features  should  be  extended  until  the  child  is  familiar  not  only  with 
the  region  and  its  map,  but  with  the  general  idea  of  mapping.  The  idea  of  direc¬ 
tion  should  be  introduced  early.  Maps  drawn  in  this  grade  should  alw^ays  contain 
some  symbol  to  indicate  directions,  such  as  an  arrow  which  points  north,  or 
some  other  symbol.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  pupils  make  maps  with  north  at 
the  top,  but  it  is  necessary  that  north  be  indicated  by  some  symbol,  so  that  the 
pupil  may  early  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  for  the  direction  symbols  on  every 
map.  When  desirable  use  colors  to  distinguish  features  on  the  map. 

(Second  Half  Year.) 

I.  Globe  study,  three  weeks. 

II.  Transition  from  globe  to  map. 

III.  Elementary  textbook  taken  up  and  completed  to  page  98. 

IV.  Regional  study  of  North  America  and  the  United  States. 

I.  Globe  study. 

(1)  Form  and  size  of  the  earth. 

By  enlarging  the  conception  given  by  the  globe,  try  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
immense  ball  on  which  we  live,  how  it  is  composed  of  rock,  mantled  over  with 
loose  material  and  soil  of  varying  depth;  that  immense  depressions  are  filled 
with  water  forming  oceans  and  separating  the  larger  land  masses  or  continents. 
Instead  of  having  diameter  and  circumference  committed  to  memory  as  such, 
have  the  pupils  u  e  as  data  for  simple  problems,  such  as  “How  long  would  it 
take  a  man  to  travel  around  the  earth  on  the  equator,  traveling  at  an  average 
rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour?”  At  best  the  globe  must  stand  as  a  symbol  for  ideas 
and  facts  too  large  for  the  understanding  of  the  child. 

(2)  Motions  of  the  earth. 

(a)  Revolution  around  Ihe  sun.  Little  can  be  done  to  make  this 
motion  mean  much  to  the  child  because  he  cannot  experience  it.  He 
may  learn  that  it  is  the  time  required  to  make  one  such  revolution  that 
determines  the  length  of  one  year.  This  revolution  is  only  one  of 
four  or  five  factors  which,  combined,  produce  seasons.  Review  the 
observations  on  seasons  made  in  the  first  half  year  and  the  conclusions 
thus  reached. 

(b)  Rotation  and  some  of  its  consequences. 

(c)  Succession  of  day  and  night. 

(d)  Directions  north,  south,  east  and  west,  are  due  to  rotation. 
North  is  toward  the  north  pole.  The  north  pole  is  one  end  of  the  axis, 
and  the  axis  is  due  to  ro  ation. 

e)  Show  how  directions  are  indicated  on  the  globe  by  meridians 
and  parallels;  the  former  run  north  and  south,  the  latter  run  east 
and  west.  Give  much  drill  in  using  these  direction  symbols. 

(f)  Locations  of  places  on  the  earth.  Show  how  meridians  are 
numbered  east  and  west  from  a  given  prime  meridian,  and  the  parallels, 
nor  h  and  sourth  from  the  equator,  and  how  from  numbers  on  the 
lines  which  intersect  at  a  given  place  it  is  possible  to  tell  the  location 
of  places  on  the  globe.  Give  much  drill  in  thus  locating  places  until 
the  child  can  readily  tell  the  approximate  latitude  and  longitude  of 
any  point  on  the  globe. 


86 


(3)  Distribution  of  land  and  water,  continents  and  oceans. 

(a)  Position  of  continents  on  the  globe,  their  direction  from  each 
other,  and  the  bounding  and  interv^ening  oceans.  Explain  these  great 
land  and  water  bodies  to  the  child  before  introducing  their  symbols. 
The  idea  should  always  come  before  its  symbol. 

(b)  General  shape  and  form  of  continents,  with  a  few  of  the  most 
important  capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  seas,  gulfs  and  bays. 

(c)  Relative  size  of  continents  as  estimated  from  the  globe. 

(4)  Climatic  conditions  of  the  earth. 

Review  what  the  pupil  has  learned  in  the  First  Half  Year  as  to  the  relation  of 
high  sun  and  low  sun  to  the  warm  temperatures  of  summer  and  the  cold  ones 
of  winter.  Let  the  teacher  go  in  imagination  with  the  class  to  the  equator  and 
tell  them  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets  and  where  it  is  at  noon  at  various  times 
during  the  year,  emphasizing  the  steep  rays  which  always  fall  at  that  parallel 
so  that  the  pupils  from  their  own  experience  with  steep  rays  and  a  high  sun 
ought  to  infer  the  hot  temperature  of  this  region.  Then  go  with  them  to  the 
“Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,”  with  its  slanting' rays  and  low  sun  and  let  them 
infer  the  conditions  of  temperature  there.  Locate  the  doldrum  belt  near  the 
equator  wath  its  hot,  moist  climate,  wath  its  daily  rains.  Contrast  the  rainy 
belt  with  the  hot,  dr>'  regions  on  either  side,  over  wTich  the  trade  wands  blow 
making  sujh  deserts  as  the  Sahara  of  Africa  and  the  Kalahara  of  Asia.  Now- 
contrast  wath  the  uniformly  hot,  dry  climate  of  the  deserts  or  the  uniformly 
hot  and  moist  climate  of  the  doldrum  belt,  the  variable  weather  of  the  temper¬ 
ate  zone  as  it  has  been  observed  by  the  child. 

II.  Transition  from  globe  to  map. 

The  pupil  should  have  become  so  familiar  wath  the  globe  that  they  are  able 

(a)  To  locate  any  place  in  approximately  its  correct  latitude  and 
longitude. 

(b)  To  tell  directions  on  the  globe. 

(c)  To  know  at  a  glance  the  various  continents  from  their  shape  and 
outline. 

It  now'  becomes  necessarv'  to  represent  various  features  of  surface  and  drain¬ 
age,  etc.,  with  greater  detail  than  <  an  be  done  on  the  globe,  so  that  the  map 
must  be  introduced.  In  order  that  the  pupils  do  not  form  w'rong  conceptions, 
ow'ing  to  the  flat  surface  upon  which  the  map  is  made,  the  use  of  the  sand  table 
is  recommended.  Here  the  relief  form  may  be  represented  and  the  concept 
transferred  to  the  map.  Wh:n  the  pupil  know'S  the  meaning  of  all  the  various 
symbols,  can  tell  directions  on  the  map,  locate  places  when  their  latitude  and 
longitude  are  given,  and  know-s  how  to  use  the  scale,  he  is  then  prepared  to 
read  and  study  the  map.  This  should  be  done  under  the  ver^^  careful  direction 
of  the  teacher.  || 

III.  Regional  Geography.  (See  IV  above.) 

Outline  for  Continental  Study  of  North  America. 

1.  Position.  Consult  and  locate  on  globe. 

(1)  In  zones,  pp.  24,  25. 

(2)  In  hemispheres,  p.  25. 

(3)  In  relation  to  bordering  w'aters,  p.  41. 

(4)  In  relation  to  other  continents,  p.  20. 


87 


II.  Form. 

(1)  General:  roughly  triangular,  pp.  40,  41. 

(2)  Actual,  determined  by: 

(a)  Its  more  important  indentations,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

(b)  Its  more  important  prolongations,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

III.  Size. 

(1)  As  compared  \\’ith  other  continents.  This  should  be  done  only 
approximately.  No  area  in  square  miles  is  to  be  given. 

(2)  As  shown  by  the  fact  that  North  America  stretches  entirely  across 
the  temperate  zone  and  reaches  into  the  frigid  zone  of  the  north  and  the 
torrid  zone  of  the  south. 

(3)  How  long  would  it  take  to  journey  in  various  directions  across 
it  at  different  rates?  Give  problems  to  be  solved. 

IV.  Relief.  (Data  to  be  secured  largely  from  maps.) 

(1)  Highlands. 

Rocky  Mountain  Highlands,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

Appalachian  Highlands,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

(2)  Lowlands. 

Plains. 

Great  Central  Plain,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

Gulf  Coastal  Plain,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

V.  Drainage. 

Gulf  drainage,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

Atlantic  drainage,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

Pacific  drainage,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

VI.  Distribution  of  people.  ’WHiere  dense,  where  sparse,  as  determinea  oy 
the  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  food  producing  capacities  of  the  various 
sections.  Supplement  text. 

VII.  Political  division,  p.  43. 

(1)  United  States  and  Alaska. 

(2)  Dominion  of  Canada. 

(3)  Mexico. 

(4)  Central  America. 

The  order  of  topics  in  the  study  of  North  America  is  followed  in  the  study 
of  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 

VIII.  Relief. 

This  includes  a  study  of  the  differences  in  character,  elevations  and  extent 
between  the  two  great  highland  masses.  In  this  connection  the  chief  ranges 
should  be  named,  located  and  characterized. 

IX.  Drainage. 

Chief  drainage  lines*  and  their  relation  to  relief  forms.  Drill  most  upon  the 
streams  which  are  commercially  important. 

X.  Climate. 

Show  the  position  of  the  United  States  on  the  globe.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
northern  part  is  near  the  frigid  zone.  Locate  the  home  state  and  a  city  or  village 
nearest  to  the  school.  Have  the  children  recall  the  usual  weather  conditions 
during  the  summer  and  winter  in  their  own  home  region.  Show  pictures  of 
southern  scenes  and  let  the  children  tell  how  the  northern  and  southern  seasons 
diffm.  The  children,  through  their  nature  study  should  be  familiar  with  the 
process  of  evaporation  and  condensation  of  moisture. 


88 


Explain  how  moisture  evaporates  over  the  sea  and  is  borne  int©  the  interior 
to  be  condensed  and  fall  as  rain  over  the  land.  Show  upon  maps  the  distribu¬ 
tion  of  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  Have  pupils  locate  on  wall  maps  regions  of 

(1)  x\bundant  rainfall. 

(^a)  Where  the  rain  is  well  distributed  and  where  the  temperature 
is  warm  enough  to  produce  abundant  vegetation. 

fb)  Where  the  rain  is  abundant  in  amount  and  in  a  warm  region, 
but  where  not  well  distributed,  resulting  in  arid  or  semi-arid  wastes. 

(c)  Where  the  rain  is  abundant,  but  in  cold  regions,  resulting  in 
snow. 

(2)  Medium  rainfall,  enough  so  that  crops  will  grow. 

1.3)  Slight  rainfall,  result,  deserts. 

XI.  Possibilities  of  occupation. 

As  a  result  of  the  relief,  temperature  and  rainfall,  it  will  be  found  that  certain 
parts  of  the  United  States  are  suited  to  certain  industries,  so  that  it  is  possible 
to  divide  the  s’ates  into  groups  in  which  the  same  industries  are  carried  on. 
In  this  way  locate: 

(1)  The  chief  agricultu  al  and  grazing  sections  and  their  chief  pro¬ 
ductions. 

(2)  The  mining  regions  and  the  most  important  minerals. 

(3)  The  lumbering  regions  and  the  most  important  trees. 

(4)  The  manufacturing  regions. 

(5)  The  fishing  grounds  and  the  chief  catches. 

XII.  States. 

Give  the  pupils  an  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  a  state.  Point  out  physical  regions 
and  state  groups  and  have  them  identify  these  groups  by  their  leading  industries. 

Only  a  few  of  the  leading  industrial  and  commercial  cities  should  be  studied 
and  these  should  be  closely  identified  with  the  industrial  region  in  which  they 
are  situated  and  with  their  leading  productions. 

Alaska  should  be  considered  with  the  United  States. 

Merrill’s  Geographic  Readers,  adopted  for  supplementary  use,  will  be  useful 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades.  The  series  includes  four  books  as  follows:  Book 
I,  Home  Geography;  Book  II,  Our  Occupations;  Book  III,  Industries  of  Man; 
Book  IV,  Our  Country. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Outline  (First  Half  Year). 

The  first  half  of  the  year  should  be  spent  upon  the  following  countries: 

South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Australia.  Give  much  attention  to 
South  America. 

The  chief  points  to  be  covered  are  (1)  Position,  (2)  Form,  (3)  Size,  (4)  Relief, 
(5)  Drainage,  (6)  Climate,  (7)  Occupations  and  industrial  regions,  (8)  Centers 
of  population  and  chief  cities. 

Simplify  the  work.  Confine  it  to  the  study  of  geog  aphy.  Do  not  go  into  too 
many  details. 

Outline  (Second  Half  Year.) 

West  Virginia  and  the  first  sixty  pages  of  Frye’s  Higher  Geography. 

The  study  of  the  state  should  be  thorough.  It  is  more  easily  comprehended, 
both  physically  and  industrially,  than  more  distant  countries;  even  more  so 
than  distant  parts  of  the  United  States. 


89 


Outline  for  West  Virginia. 


I.  Position. 

II.  Form. 

III.  Size  as  indicated  by  (1)  Latitude,  (2)  Distance  by  scale  of  miles  east 
and  west,  north  and  south,  (3)  Area  as  compared  with  other  states. 

IV.  Relief. 

(1)  The  Allegheny  Mountains. 

(2)  The  plateau  section. 

(3)  The  rounded  hills. 

V.  Drainage.  The  sources  of  rivers,  their  courses  and  directions. 

(1)  Potomac  System. 

(2)  Ohio  System. 

VI.  Chmate. 

VII.  Soils,  uplands  and  flood  plains. 

VI  II.  Vegetation. 

(1)  The  forests  and  the  lumber  and  paper  industries. 

(2)  The  general  diversified  agriculture  of  the  state. 

(3)  The  grazing  regions  and  the  cattle  industry. 

(4)  The  market  gardening  and  truck  raising  regions. 

IX.  Animal  life. 

X.  Mineral  wealth  and  mining  industries. 

XI.  Manufacturing. 

XII.  Distribution  of  population. 

XIII.  Transportation  and  trade  routes. 

First  sixty  pages  of  Frye’s  H  gher  Geography.  If  the  work  has  been  well 
done  in  the  fourth  grade  this  work  can  be  quickly  covered.  It  will  be  mostly 
a  review  with  more  intensive  work  on  seasons,  winds  and  rainfall,  landforms,  and 
physical  conditions. 


SIXTH  GRADE. 

South  America,  Europe,  North  America,  the  United  States  and  West  Virginia, 
should  have  been  studied  in  the  order  mentioned,  with  special  reference  to  their 
great  industries  and  the  physical  and  social  conditions  influencing  them. 

Colonies,  no  matter  where  located,  if  important  enough  to  be  noted, 
are  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  mother  country.  The  com¬ 
mercial  relations  existing  between  the  home  countries  and  their  several  colonies 
are  to  be  emphasized. 

Begin  text  on  page  137.  After  the  study  of  South  Amer  ca  and  Europe  as  in¬ 
dicated  above,  return  to  page  61  and  make  an  intensive  study  of  the  United 
States  and  West  Virginia. 

General  Outline. 


I.  Position. 

(1)  Relative. 

(2)  Absolute. 

II.  Form. 

(1)  Relative. 


90 


(2)  Actual. 

(a)  As  shown  by  map. 

(b)  Indentations. 

(c)  Prolongations. 

(3)  Continental  shelf. 

III.  Size. 

(1 )  Relative. 

(a)  Compared  with  other  continents. 

(b)  In  relation  to  oceans. 

(c)  What  part  of  the  whole  earth. 

(2)  Actual. 

(a)  Extreme  breadth  and  length  of  time  it  takes  to  make  the 
journey. 

(b)  Number  of  square  miles. 

IV.  Relief.  'Data  secured  largely  from  map.) 

(1)  Highlands  including  plateaus. 

(a)  Position. 

(b)  Extent. 

(c)  Elevation. 

(d)  General  character. 

.  (e)  Arrangement. 

(2)  Relations  of  the  highlands  to  the  great  continental  slopes,  great 
drainage  systems,  interior  bas'ns  and  the  nature  of  coast  lines. 

(3)  Lowlands. 

(a)  Position. 

(b)  Extent. 

(c)  Structure. 

(d)  Kinds. 

V.  Climate. 

(1)  As  indicated  by  angle  of  sun’s  rays  or  latitude. 

(2)  As  modified  by  elevation. 

(3)  As  influenced  by  winds  from  ocean. 

(4)  As  shown  by  isothermal  map. 

VI.  Rainfall. 

(1)  Region  of  modern  and  heavy  rainfall. 

(2)  Influence  of  highlands  upon  winds  and  rainfall. 

(3)  Location  of  rainless  areas  and  reason  therefor. 

VI I.  Drainage. 

(1)  Chief  rivers  and  their  relation  to  the  landforms  which  they  have 
been  instrumental  in  creating. 

(2)  Lakes. 

(a)  Fresh  water  lakes. 

(b)  Salt  water  lakes. 

VIII.  Soil. 

(1)  Residual. 

(2)  Transported. 

IX.  Zones  of  vegetation  as  dependent  upon 

(1)  Temperature  as  determined  by  latitude,  altitude,  proximity  to  water, 
and  influence  of  ocean  currents. 

(2)  Rainfall. 

(3)  Character  of  the  soil. 


91 


X.  Zones  of  waste  as  dependent  upon 

(1)  Lack  of  moisture. 

(2)  Altitude. 

(3)  Latitude. 

(4)  Too  much  moisture. 

(a)  Swamp. 

(b)  Jungle. 

(c)  Bad  lands,  j 

(5)  Poor  soil. 

XL  Distribution  of  animal  life. 

XII.  Distribution  of  mineral  resources. 

XII I .  Distribution  of  population  as  dependent  upon  possibilities  of  occupa¬ 
tion,  resources,  supply  and  demand,  and  commercial  advantages. 

XIV.  Development  and  location  of  centers  of  population  as  showing  the 
needs  of  the  people  for  commercial  centers,  manufacturing  centers,  and  govern¬ 
ment  centers. 

XV.  Development  of  commercial  and  trade  routes,  resulting  from  the  effort 
to  obtain  the  products  and  the  patronage  of  the  other  people  of  the  world.  Har¬ 
bors,  river  systems,  and  railways. 

XVL  Political  divisions  and  government. 

Special  Topics. 

The  following  list  of  topics  is  suitable  for  development  and  comparison  with 
like  conditions  in  other  lands  and  should  lead  to  general  truths.  They  will 
furnish  material  for  reviews  of  other  places  on  the  globe  and  should  be  studied 
in  connection  with  the  geography  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Northeastern  Section  and  North  Central  Section. 

(1)  In  a  cotton  factory  at  Lowell,  Mass. 

(2)  The  arsenal  and  gun  f acton/  at  Springfield. 

(3)  The  woolen  factories  at  Fall  River. 

(4)  Watches  and  watch  makers  at  Waltham. 

(5)  In  a  shoe  factory  at  Lynn. 

(6)  Granite  quarries  of  New  Hampshire. 

(7)  Slate  quarries  of  Bangor. 

(8)  Among  the  light  houses  along  the  coast. 

(9)  New  York  Harbor  and  Ellis  Island;  landing  of  immigrants. 

(10)  Garden  farming  in  New  Jersey. 

(11)  In  a  West  Virginia  coal  mine. 

(12)  A  blast  furnace  at  Pittsburgh. 

(13)  The  oil  fields  of  West  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania. 

(14)  Orchards  of  West  Virginia,  Maryland  and  Delaware. 

(15)  Oyster  beds  of  the  Chesapeake. 

(16)  Fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

(17)  Tobacco  culture  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

(18)  Lumber  industries  of  Maine  and  Michigan. 

(19)  Prairies  of  Illinois. 

(20)  Chicago  as  a  trade  center. 

(21)  Copper  mines  of  Michigan  and  lead  mines  of  Wisconsin. 

(22)  The  wheat  fields  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas. 

(23)  The  flouring  mills  of  Minneapolis. 


(24)  Corn  and  live  stock  of  Indiana  and  Iowa. 

(25)  Natural  gas  and  its  uses. 

(26)  Rubber  manufacturing  in  Akron,  Ohio. 

(27 )  Automobile  industry  o  Detroit. 

II.  Southern  Section. 

(1)  The  rice  fields  of  the  Carolinas. 

(2)  Fruit  growing  in  Florida. 

(3 '  Cotton  culture  in  Georgia  and  Mississippi. 

(4)  Sugar  plantation  in  Louisiana. 

(5)  A  cattle  ranch  in  Texas. 

(6)  Iron  smelting  in  Birmingham. 

Til  Plateau  Section. 

(1)  Farming  by  irrigation. 

(2)  Mining  camp  in  Colorado. 

(3)  Gold  and  silver  smelting  at  Denver. 

(4)  A  trip  to  Yellowstone  Park. 

(5)  Fruits  and  flowers  of  California. 

(6)  Salmon  fishing  on  the  Columbia  river. 

(7)  The  lumber  industry  of  the  northwest. 

Note:  (The  above  list  of  topics  is  not  all-inclusive  by  any  means.  It  should 
suggest  to  the  live  teacher  many  others,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  which  will 
prove  very  valuable  to  the  pupils  in  giving  them  better  ideas  of  the  great  manu¬ 
facturing,  agricultural,  mining  and  commercial  industries  of  the  world.) 

The  school  library  should  contain  several  of  Carpenter’s  Geographical  Readers 
and  some  interesting  books  of  travel.  These  books  and  the  government  and 
commercial  bulletins  that  may  be  obtained  free  should  be  used  in  the  intensive 
study  of  special  topics. 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS. 


One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  public  schools,  possibly  the  chief  duty,  is  the 
production  of  an  intelligent,  right-hearted,  stalwart,  and  active  citizenship.  The 
present  posture  of  affairs  is  emphasizing  this.  It  becomes  increasingly  evident 
that  the  value  of  a  civilization  is  measured  not  only  by  its  material  wealth  and 
industrial  and  scientific  efficiency,  but  also  by  its  ideals  and  the  institutions  and 
processes  that  embody  them.  Our  democracy  maintains  schools  in  order  that 
democracy  herself  and  democracy’s  blessings  may  be  maintained.  The  work  of 
producing  this  citizenship  for  a  democracy  should  be  carried  out  through  all 
subjects  taught  in  the  schools.  But  it  is  chiefly  through  the  social  sciences,  which 
in  elementary  schools  are  represented  by  history  and  civics  and  geography,  that 
this  training  is  most  directly  given. 

HISTORY 

With  this  main  purpose  in  mind,  the  aim  of  the  course  in  history  will  be  to 
enable  the  boys  and  girls  to  acquire  a  sympathetic  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  American  ideals  and  institutions,  and  thus  to  understand  better  the  community 
of  which  they  are  members,  and  to  appreciate  their  relations  to  this  community. 

Care  should  therefore  be  taken  not  to  treat  history  as  if  a  knowledge  of  the 
events  recorded  were  the  end  to  be  reached.  These  events  should  constantly  be 
made  to  show  their  relations  to  the  present.  The  value  of  history  for  our  students 
is  not  that  it  “trains  the  memory”  or  “increases  our  information”,  but  that  it 
gives  a  proper  perspective  and  helps  to  explain  the  present. 

In  grades  one  to  three  there  will  be  no  text  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  and  no 
separate  classes  in  history.  In  fact,  the  work  should  be  he:  e  presented  in  correlation 
with  reading,  story-telling  and  language  work.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  work 
of  these  grades  to  form  a  background  for  the  later  study.  This  can  best  be  ac¬ 
complished  by  stories  which  deal  vdth  peoples  and  conditions  in  primitive  or  early 
life.  These  stories  will  tell  in  a  simple  way  of  the  lives  of  the  Eskimo,  the  Indian, 
etc.  They  will  tell  how  these  peoples  get  their  food  and  clothing  and  how  they 
house  themselves.  These  stories  of  the  hunt  and  chase,  of  herding  and  primitive 
agriculture  and  of  theJater  trade  and  travel  and  discovery  can  be  made  intensely 
interesting.  Especially  is  this  true,  if  the  stories  deal  with  the  lives  of  the  children 
of  these  peoples.  There  is  a  wealth  of  material  published  for  this  purpose  which 
can  be  used  as  well  for  supplementary  reading.  The  following  may  be  consulted 
for  hsts  of  stories:  Talkington’s  “How  to  Teach  History  and  Civics  in  the 
Grades”;  McMurry’s  “Special  Method  in  History”;  “Report  of  Committee  of 
Eight”,  etc. 

National  holidays,  celebrations,  and  the  like  will  furnish  occasions  for  the  intro¬ 
duction,  in  simple  form,  of  the  stories  of  their  origin  and  meaning.  Because  of  the 
relationship  of  our  history  to  that  of  other  lands  and  times,  it  is  well  to  introduce 
as  early  as  the  third  grade  stories  of  such  world  characters  as  Joseph,  Moses, 
David,  Ulysses,  Alexander,  Horatius,  William  Tell,  Roland,  Canute,  Alfred  the 
Great,  Robert  Bruce,  Joan  of  Arc,  etc. 


94 


Fourth  Grade 

The  story  of  our  country  is  presented  in  this  grade  through  the  biographies  of 
many  of  the  prominent  men  of  our  country.  These  biographies  are  classified  under 
different  heads  so  that  the  children  can  understand  the  part  played  by  each  man. 
The  story  element  here  predominates  over  the  cause  and  effect  idea  of  history. 
The  principal  facts  in  the  history  of  a  period  are  grouped  about  the  life  of  some 
prominent  men  of  the  time.  It  is  the  concrete  and  dramatic  that  takes  hold  of  the 
interest  of  the  child.  The  children  will  appreciate  and  approximate  in  their  own 
lives  the  qualities  they  admire  in  others.  Have  them  note  the  strong  traits  of 
character  in  these  men.  Train  the  pupils  in  topical  recitations  both  oral  and 
written,  being  careful  that  the  stories  are  told  in  good  language  of  the  pupil’s  own 
choosing. 

Encourage  inquiry  into  local  history, — naming  of  districts,  settlements,  the 
local  railroad,  the  town  and  any  other  things  that  may  be  of  interest. 

Textbook:  Mace’s  Beginners’  History,  pp. 1-202. 

Supplementary:  Makers  of  American  History  and  Story  of  Our  Country, 
Book  1.  , 


Fifth  Grade 

The  work  of  this  year  follows  the  directions  of  that  of  the  Fourth  grade,  wdth  a 
bit  wider  and  deeper  view  of  the  meaning  of  the  events  to  which  the  biography  is 
related.  The  battle  of  the  hero  against  the  conditions  which  hinder  him  and  his 
final  victor^^  bring  out  the  moral  qualities  and  dramatic  elements  in  the  hero’s  life. 
In  these  qualities,  which  we  Msh  to  arouse  in  the  pupil,  we  find  the  real  justifica¬ 
tion  of  elementary  history  in  the  schools  and  the  reason  that  it  is  made  biographical. 

Textbook:  Mace’s  Beginners’  History,  pp.  202-389. 

Supplementary:  Makers  of  American  History  and  Story  of  Our  Country, 
Book  II. 


Sixth  Grade 

The  purpose  of  introducing  the  pupils  to  European  history  is  to  give  them  in 
simple  story  form  those  things  in  the  history  of  early  Europe  which  have  come  to 
America  and  out  of  which,  in  part,  America  is  built.  There  should  be  a  genuine 
study  of  the  way  the  people  of  old  Europe  lived  and  what  they  did.  These  ways 
they  carried  to  Spain,  France,  Holland  and  England  and  in  turn  the  people  of  these 
countries  carried  them  to  America.  This  story  of  the  growth  of  our  civilization 
when  told  in  simple  way  and  without  attempt  to  burden  the  story  with  unpro¬ 
nounceable  names,  is  full  of  romance  and  consequent  interest  to  the  boys  and 
girls.  It  helps  to  explain,  also,  the  struggles  of  the  nations  for  the  control  of 
America,  and  the  life  and  institutions  which  they  built  here. 

Textbook:  Mace-Tanner’s  Old  Europe  and  Young  America.  I^tudy  the  entire 
book  in  this  grade. 

Supplementary:  Story  of  the  Old  World. 

CIVICS 

If,  as  stated  above,  one  of  the  chief  tasks  of  the  public  schools  is  the  production 
of  a  good  American  citizenship,  then  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  teacher  to  work 


96 


directly  toward  this  end.  The  specific  aims  should  be:  (1)  to  impress  upon  the 
children  that  they  are  members  of  several  social  groups  and  therefore  responsible 
in  a  measure  for  what  these  groups  are;  (2)  to  cultivate  habits  of  cleanliness,  order, 
co-operation,  service,  and  obedience  to  law;  (3)  to  emphasize  the  close  and  double 
relation  between  the  welfare  of  the  individual  and  the  welfare  of  home  and  society; 
(4)  to  inculcate  habits  of  thrift  and  industry;  and  (5)  to  develop  political  intelli¬ 
gence  and  its  exercise.  This  can  be  accomplished  partly  by  giving  information  to 
the  boys  and  girls,  but  chiefly  by  bringing  them  into  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  everyday  work  and  civic  relations  of  the  members  of  the  community  and  by 
giving  to  them  opportunities  for  developing  the  habit  of  mutual  helpfulness  and 
co-operation.  The  formation  of  Thrift  Clubs,  .Junior  Red  Cross  societies,  and  like 
organizations  should  be  encouraged  not  only  for  the  primary  benefit  to  the  causes 
represented  by  them,  but  for  the  resultant  civic  training  of  the  children.  The 
socialized  recitation,  debating  club,  the  corn  club,  canning  club,  social  center  meet¬ 
ings,  the  general  discipline  of  school,  the  pla^^ground  are  but  a  few  of  the  many 
agencies  that  furnish  fertile  opportunities  for  this  work. 

Thus,  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  make  Civics  a  separate  subject  of  intruction,  or  to 
adopt  a  textbook  for  the  elementary  grades,  but  rather  to  correlate  it  with  all 
subjects,  emphasizing  their  civic  side,  and  by  taking  advantage  of  the  numberless 
opportunities  that  arise  to  drive  home  the  lessons.  In  that  way  each  teacher  can 
do  her  bit  in  a  way  that  possibly  cannot  be  done  so  well  by  anyone  else. 

In  a  general  way  the  work  should  have  the  following  scope. 

First  Grade 

The  family — what  parents  do  for  children.  How  children  may  show  gratitude. 
Care  of  furniture,  toys,  clothing.  Respect  for  age. 

Second  Grade 

The  home  and  the  community — how  each  serves  the  other.  Community  ser¬ 
vants  of  the  home — the  milkman,  the  postman,  the  garbage  man.  What  these 
servants  do,  the  importance  of  their  work.  Who  sends  them?  Why?  How  we 
can  help  them.  How  the  home  serves  the  community — care  of  premises,  conduct 
toward  neighbors,  conduct  in  stores  and  public  places. 

Third  Grade 

The  home  and  the  school.  Habits  that  apply  to  each — obedience,  service,  etc. 
Care  of  property — 'furniture,  school  supplies.  Appearance  of  home  and  school — 
yard,  street,  alley,  etc.  The  home-and-school  community — co-operation  for 
beauty  and  protection.  Care  of  lawns,  trees,  fences,  public  property.  Courtesy  to 
strangers. 


Fourth  Grade 

Stories  of  the  growth  of  the  following  and  how  each  serves  the  community; 
public  schools,  library,  postofTice,  street  railways,  hospitals,  parks,  fire  and  police 
departments,  city  hall,  court  house,  state  house.  Your  city  an  industrial  center — 
what  made  it  so?  Sources  of  raw  material,  destination  of  manufactured  products. 
Sources  of  food  and  clothing.  Means  of  transportation. 


96 


Fifth  Grade 

Waste,  saving,  and  wise  expenditure  in  the  home — foods,  clothing,  furniture, 
light,  fuel,  Christmas  gifts,  etc.  Keep  in  repair — fences,  buildings,  doors,  gates, 
etc.  Saving  of  doctor’s  bills  by  care  of  health.  Discuss — Does  it  pay  to  buy  cheap 
goods?  To  have  cheap  workmen?  Cultivation  of  gardens  for  economy’s  sake. 
Advantage  of  home  ownership. 


Sixth  Grade 

Ordinances  and  laws — On  removal  of  garbage,  crossing  of  streets,  providing  for 
pure  water  and  pure  foods,  school  attendance  and  working  certificates.  Individual 
responsibility — to  self,  to  the  weak  and  needy,  to  the  home,  class,  school,  city, 
state,  country.  Civic  growdh  of  city — water  supply,  lighting  and  heating,  im¬ 
proved  streets  and  boulevards,  parks,  public  buildings.  How  your  city,  your 
state,  and  your  country  protect  you — your  character,  your  rights,  your  property 
and  your  life  and  the  obligation  you  owe  as  a  result.  The  supreme  lesson :  to  be  a 
good  citizen — a  lady  or  a  gentleman — at  all  times  and  at  all  places. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


FIRST,  SECOND,  THIRD  AND  FOURTH  GRADES 

Time:  Fifteen  minutes  once  a  week  at  the  nature  study  period. 

Course:  Simple  facts  concerning  the  body,  its  growth  and  care,  divided  into 
topics  as  follows: 

Note:  Teachers  wishing  information  on  these  topics  will  find  at  the  end  of  each 
topic  the  chapter  or  page  designated  in  Hygiene  and  Sanitation — the  adopted  text. 

The  Body 

Composed  of  flesh,  nerves,  and  bones.  Location,  name  and  use  of  the  chief  parts 
and  organs — head,  brain,  trunk,  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  etc. 

Principal  uses  are  motion,  respiration,  nutrition,  excretion  and  sensations,  or  to 
enable  us  to  move,  breathe,  eat  in  order  to  grow,  to  cast  off  impurities,  and  to  hear, 
see,  feel  and  think.  Chapter  II  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

The  Growth  of  the  Body 

In  order  that  the  body  may  grow  it  needs  good  food,  pure  air,  pure  water, 
exercise  and  rest. 

Develop  these  in  the  order  given  and  contrast  good  and  bad  foods,  etc.,  so  as  to 
make  clear  to  the  child  the  necessity  of  each.  Chapter  III  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

General  Note  to  the  Teacher 

Though  the  work  is  here  definitely  outlined  it  does  not  preclude  the  teacher’s 
giving  hygienic  instruction  when  the  opportunity  presents  itself. 

Examples:  Headache  caused  by  late  hours.  A  sick  stomach  caused  by  over¬ 
eating. 

Should  a  pupil  come  to  school  with  wet  feet,  the  teacher  should  not  only  see  that 
this  condition  is  removed,  but  show  the  bad  effects  of  same.  Or, 

Should  a  pupil  accidentally  cut  or  tear  his  flesh,  the  teacher  should  not  only  be 
able  to  dress  the  wound  properly,  but  make  this  an  occasion  for  an  object  lesson 
for  the  school. 


Food  and  Its  Uses  to  the  Body 

Talk  about  the  necessity  of  food  for  growth  and  repair;  cause  of  hunger;  digestion, 
absorption  and  assimilation  of  food;  how  to  aid  digestion;  importance  of  such 
foods  as  milk,  eggs,  bread  and  butter,  meat,  fruits,  vegetables,  salads,  oils  and 
nuts;  dangers  of  tea,  coffee  and  alcoholic  drinks;  unsanitary  soda  fountain  and 
drinks. 

Hygiene;  need  of  eating  slowly  and  chewing  thoroughly;  why  we  should  not 
over-eat,  especially  of  such  foods  as  pie,  cake,  candy,  pickles,  etc.,  of  green  or 
decayed  fruit,  of  tainted  and  adulterated  foods;  regularity  of  eating,  sleeping. 


98 


studying,  movement  of  the  intestines  to  get  rid  of  waste  matter,  negleet  ol'  which 
may  cause  appendicitis  and  other  intestinal  trouble.  Chapter  III  and  VIII, 
Primer  of  Plygiene. 


Care  and  Preparation  of  Food 

« 

The  Care  of  Milk:  Why  milk  delivered  in  bottles  is  cleaner  than  milk  delivered 
in  cans;  why  it  should  be  cooled  and  kept  cool;  need  for  cleanliness  at  the  dairy; 
how  to  keep  it  clean  and  pure  at  home;  how  eggs,  butter,  meat,  bread,  berries  and 
fruits  should  be  handled  and  kept;  why  food  is  cooked;  why  fried  foods  are  not 
the  best;  why  simply  prepared  foods  are  best.  Chapter  V  and  VII,  Primer  of 
Hygiene. 

Our  Meals  and  When  to  Eat 

Breakfast:  Fresh  fruit  (apple,  orange,  bananas),  some  cereal  with  milk  or  cream, 
eggs,  toast  and  a  glass  of  milk;  bread  and  coffee  are  not  sufficient,  the  latter  being 
injurious  to  children. 

Noon  Meal:  Lettuce,  egg  or  meat  sandwiches,  fruits,  nuts,  milk,  chocolate  or 
cheese  make  an  appetizing  and  nutritious  lunch;  a  lunch  containing  much  pie, 
cake,  pickles,  etc.,  is  not  a  good  one. 

Evening  Meal:  Soup,  meat  or  fish,  bread,  vegetables,  fruit,  with  ices  or  light 
pudding  for  dessert,  make  an  excellent  dinner. 

Strong,  healthy  and  beautiful  bodies  depend  largely  upon  the  right  choice  of 
food  at  daily  meals. 

Do  not  eat  betw'een  meals  to  keep  from  getting  hungry.  Wait  until  you  are 
hungry. 

Necessity  for  clean  face  and  hands  w'hen  eating. 

How  to  care  for  the  dishes;  proper  method  of  washing  dishes.  Chapters  V  and 
VIII,  Primer  of  Hygiene,  and  chapter  XXX  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Pure  Air  and  Its  Use  to  the  Body 

Why  we  need  a  constant  supply  of  air;  out-door  air  the  best;  ways  of  ventilating 
occupied  rooms  to  secure  pur  air;  why  the  air  in  an  unventilated  room  is  not  pure; 
the  need  of  a  thermometer;  why  the  heated  room  should  be  kept  at  from  65  to  70 
degrees;  why  air  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  di^'". 

The  need  of  keeping  the  windows  of  one’s  sleeping  room  open  at  night.  Pure 
'  cool  air  is  a  great  aid  in  keeping  good  health  and  good  appearance. 

Breathing 

Correct  position  best  for  breathing  and  for  good  appearance  as  well;  why 
breathe  through  the  nose  and  keep  both  nostrils  open;  the  value  of  exercise  to 
improve  posture  and  increase  lung  capacity;  harm  from  tight  clothing;  why  over¬ 
exertion,  such  as  long  runs,  and  violent  exercise  is  not  good  for  the  growing  child. 
Chapters  X  and  XI,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Water  and  Its  Use  to  the  Body 

Necessity  for  pure  water;  w’hy  the  body  needs  plenty  of  water;  when  drinking 
water  should  be  boiled;  why  drinking  much  at  meals  is  not  advisable;  why  it  is 


F 


99 


needful  to  bathe  and  when;  use  of  soap;  hot  water  bottle  and  its  use  in  relieving 
pain;  necessity  for  individual  drinking  cups.  Chapter  XX,  Primer  of  Sanitation. 


Care  of  the  Body 

Uses  of  the  skin,  hair  and  finger  nails  and  care  of  each.  Chapter  XV,  Primer  of 
Hygiene. 

Teeth:  Value  in  preparing  food  for  digestion;  causes  and  cure  of  irregular 
teeth;  causes  of  decay;  when  and  how  to  clean  the  teeth;  necessity  for  taking  care 
of  the  temporary  teeth;  the  first  permanent  teeth;  why  the  teeth  should  be  ex¬ 
amined  by  the  dentist  and  filling  done  at  least  twice  a  year.  Chapter  IX, 
Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Eyes;  Ways  of  protecting  the  eyes;  evidences  of  the  need  of  glasses;  why 
spectacles  are  preferable  to  glasses;  care  of  glasses;  examine  for  trachoma. 
Chapter  XXIV,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Ears:  Care  of,  common  injuries  to;  signs  of  defective  hearing;  why  consult  a 
physician  when  symptoms  are  recognized.  Chapter  XXV,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Clothing:  Kinds  and  advantages  of  each;  differences  for  cold  and  warm 
weather;  need  for  underclothing;  kinds  and  advantages;  need  for  rubbers  in  wet 
weather,  should  not  be  kept  on  while  indoors;  importance  of  keeping  the  body 
dry  and  free  from  colds.  Chapter  XVI,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Cleanliness:  Necessity  for  clean  homes,  clean  yards,  clean  streets;  why  rugs 
are  better  than  carpets;  advantages  of  vacuum  cleaner  and  moist  cloth  for  dust¬ 
ing;  vigorous  health  the  best  preventive  of  any  disease;  how  the  house-fly  spreads 
disease  and  how  to  combat  it;  dangers  in  handling  the  dirty  cat  or  dirty  dog. 
Chapter  XXIX,  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Accidents:  What  to  do  in  case  of  cuts,  bruises,  burns;  why  cuts  should  be 
cleansed  and  covered;  danger  of  scratching  off  scab  with  finger  nails;  necessity 
for  using  clean  cloths;  possible  danger  froin  rusty  nails;  what  to  do  if  clothing 
catches  fire;  why  boys  and  girls  should  learn  to  swim;  dangers  from  electric  wires; 
danger  from  dog  bites .  Chapter  XXVI ,  Primer  of  Hygiene . 


I 


Accidents  and  Emergencies 

In  every  schoolhouse  there  should  be  the  following  emergency  outfit  and  every 
teacher  should  know  how  to  use  its  contents.  The  remedies  should  be  placed 
beyond  the  reach  of  anxious  children. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  camphor. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  arnica. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  witch  hazel. 

1  oz.  bottle  of  collodion. 

1  pair  of  sharp  scissors. 

Package  of  absorbent  cotton. 

Roll  of  clean  linen  or  soft  cotton  for  bandages. 

Sheet  of  surgeon’s  rubber  adhesive  plaster. 

Needle  and  thread. 

An  antiseptic  plaster  or  dressing  for  a  wound  may  be  made  as  follows:  After 
cleansing  the  wound  thoroughly  with  cold  water,  put  enough  of  the  absorbent 
cotton  over  the  wound  to  cover  it  completely.  Drop  collodion  on  the  cotton  until 
it  is  saturated.  With  the  fingers  press  the  cotton  gently  but  firmly  upon  the 
wound  and  let  it  dry  there.  This  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  antiseptic 


100 


plasters.  A  clean  linen  or  cotton  bandage  may  be  wrapped  about  the  wound  if  it 
is  severe. 

Exercise,  Rest  and  Sleep 

Exercise:  Why  needed,  kinds  and  advantages  of  out-of-door  exercise. 

Rest  and  Sleep:  Why  needed;  illness  often  avoided  by  taking  regular  and 
proper  amount  of  sleep;  best  time  to  sleep;  amount  of  sleep;  why  students  should 
not  keep  late  hours.  Chapter  XX,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

The  joy  of  health  and  strength,  happiness  and  satisfaction,  ability  to  look,  do, 
and  be  our  best. 

Health  and  strength  the  natural  result  of  the  wise  use  of  food,  air,  water,  exercise 
and  rest;  individual  responsibility  of  clean,  pure,  healthy  bodies.  Chapter 
XXXII,  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Suggestions  on  Exercise 

It  is  impossible  to  outline  a  course  on  physical  exercise  within  the  space  allotted 
here,  but  it  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  make  a  special  effort  to  enter  into  and 
direct  the  play  of  her  pupils.  Especially  should  the  teacher  be  prepared  to  direct 
the  play  on  rainy  and  bad  days  when  the  pupils  must  stay  within  doors.  The 
teacher  also  needs  the  exercise.  She  can  do  better  work  together  with  her  pupils 
after  participating  in  a  game  that  calls  into  use  the  muscles  of  the  body. 

There  are  many  indoor  games  which  are  full  of  action.  See  to  it  that  the  children 
get  some  vigorous  play  at  the  recesses  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  teacher  thinks 
best. 

For  a  complete  list  of  indoor  as  well  as  outdoor  games  with  complete  instructions 
for  playing,  see  “Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and  Gymnasium,” 
by  Jesse  H.  Bancroft.  Price  $1.50.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Or, 
Johnson’s  “What  to  Do  at  Recess.”  Price  25  cents.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

As  a  rule  the  calisthenics  given  in  the  school  room  is  not  enjoyed  by  the  pupils 
and  is  of  very  little  benefit  to  them.  Play  is  the  natural  exercise  for  the  child. 
Chapters  XVII,  XVIII  and  XXVII,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Fifth  Grade 

The  Primer  of  Hygiene  should  be  used  in  the  fifth  year.  Pupils  should  have  the 
text  book  in  this  and  the  following  grade. 

One  lesson  per  week  at  the  period  assigned  to  nature  study. 

Whenever  references  are  made  to  parts  of  the  body,  or  other  things  which  the 
child  may  not  understand,  the  teacher  should  make  careful  explanations. 

Sixth  Grade 

Primer  of  Sanitation  is  the  text.  First  half  year,  pp.  1-100,  second  half  year,  pp. 
100-194.  One  lesson  each  week. 

Care  should  be  taken  here,  as  before,  that  pupils  have  an  opportunity  to  see 
pictures,  drawings,  diagrams,  etc.,  that  will  help  to  make  clear  the  subject  matter. 
When  possible  bring  in  objects  illustrating  the  lesson  or  take  the  pupils  out  to 
observe  sanitary  or  unsanitary  conditions.  Have  the  pupils  make  observ’ations 
and  investigations  and  make  written  reports. 

The  aim  is  to  get  the  pupil  to  apply  the  principles  learned  so  that  his  health  and 
that  of  his  associates  at  home  and  elsewhere  will  show  improvement.  Stimulate 
the  desire  of  the  pupil  to  be  well,  to  apply  hygienic  principles  to  his  owm  living, 
so  that  it  w'ill  result  in  fixed  habits  of  right  living. 


DRAWING. 


The  teaching  of  art  in  the  schools  should  have  two  results  for  the  children:  (1) 
the  development  of  a  love  of  the  beautiful,  and  (2)  the  ability  of  self-expression. 
It  should  teach  the  child  to  appreciate  the  masterpiece,  and  train  him  to  desire 
more  pleasant  surroundings  and  to  do  his  work  more  tastefully.  Incidentally,  it 
should  also  train  his  eye  and  hand. 

The  subject  should  constantly  be  thought  of  not  as  isolated,  but  as  closely  cor¬ 
related  with  all  other  subjects  in  the  course  of  study.  It  should  be  supplemented 
by  picture-study. 

The  course  includes:  (1)  Representation,  (2)  Construction,  and  (3)  Design. 
The  following  suggestions  are  outlined  with  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  teacher  in 
her  mission  of  helping  the  child  to  help  himself. 

(The  numbers  given  refer  to  pages  in  the  “Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books”.) 

First  Grade 

Representation:  In  plant  life  observe  the  simpler  types  of  trees,  such  as  the 
maple,  apple,  cedar,  poplar.  Compare  their  shapes  and  proportions;  also  form 
and  proportion  of  leaves;  and  form  and  color  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Animal  drawing  should  include  the  general  characteristics  of  animals:  shape 
of  body,  head,  feet,  tail,  ears,  nose. 

In  drawing  the  human  figure  begin  with  the  manikin,  or  “stick  man.”  In  this, 
proportion  of  the  body  and  action  are  represented.  Follow  with  poses  illustrating 
actions,  walking,  running,  jumping.  Illustrate  games  and  stories  with  these 
illustrations. 

Construction:  The  problems  in  this  grade  should  involve  measuring  to  the 
inch.  The  subjects  should  be  simple  articles  for  the  playhouse,  to  be  done  in  paper 
folding,  without  pasting. 

Booklets  may  be  tied  together  and  mats  woven  and  folded  into  hair  receivers, 
handkerchief  cases,  etc. 

The  Progressive  Drawing  Books  are  rich  in  material  and  directions  for  this  work. 

Decorative  Design:  Measure  inch  spaces  for  borders  by  folding  or  ruler. 

References:  Nature  work,  pp.  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  44;  Design,  pp.  19,  40: 
Construction,  pp.  21,  23,  46. 

Object  drawing:  (Pages  28,  30,  32).  Pose  and  animal  drawing:  (Pages  34, 
36,38).  Color:  (Pages  50, 51). 


Second  Grade 

Representation:  This  should  be  a  continuation  of  first  grade.  Lead  the  child 
to  more  accurate  representation  of  objects. 

Construction:  This  work  may  be  the  same  as  the  first  year,  with  the  addition 
of  half  inch  measurement.  An  evelope  or  folder  for  drawings  may  be  made  for  an 
early  problem. 

Design:  Continue  borders;  using  simple  units  in  “repeat”  patterns,  giving 
attention  to  orderly  arrangement,  freedom  from  crowding,  and  proportion. 

One  of  the  primary  colors  or  any  one  of  the  standard  colors  (red,  yellow,  green, 


102 


blue  violet)  may  be  used  with  a  gray  (not  too  dark  or  too  light)  of  harmonious 
tone. 

Nursery  rhymes  furnish  good  material  for  borders  in  this  grade. 

References:  Nature  Work:  (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  46).  Design:  (Pages 
15,  17,  19,  48).  Construction:  (Pages  23,  25,  40,  42,  44).  Object  Drawing: 
(Pages  28,  30,  32).  Pose  and  Animal  Drawing:  (Pages  34,  36,  38).  Color: 
(Pages  50,  51). 


Third  Grade 

Representation:  In  plant  life  study  characteristics  of  growth  and  the  relative 
size  of  parts,  tones.  Show  dark  stem  and  leaves  with  lighter  flower.  The  same 
subjects  should  be  used  as  in  first  and  second  grades,  but  varying  with  the  interests 
of  the  class. 

Construction :  Tfeach  accurate  measuring  to  the  half  inch.  A  booklet  with  the 
cover  to  extend  beyond  the  pages  one-half  inch,  or  a  box  for  pencils  with  one-half 
inch  lap  to  be  pasted  at  corners.  ‘ 

Design :  The  problem  for  decoration  in  grade  three  should  be  a  surface  pattern 
for  the  box  and  book  cover.  Select  a  material  of  soft  gray  color  or  a  neutral.  Decide 
upon  the  space  to  be  decorated  and  mark  the  entire  space  with  dots  one-half  inch 
apart.  Place  the  unit  in  alternating  squares,  or  upon  each  alternating  spot.  Use 
only  one  color  with  gray  or  two  tones  of  one  color. 

References:  Nature  Work:  (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  46,  48).  Design: 
(Pages  15,  17;  23).  Construction:  (Pages  21,  40,  42,  44);  Pose  and  Animal 
Drawing:  (Pages  34,  36,  38);  Object  Drawing:  (Pages  28,  30,  32). 

Fourth  Grade 

Representation:  Study  plant  life  for  the  appearance  of  form.  Draw  in  large 
masses  plants  showing  turned  leaves  and  flowers  representing  them  just  as  they 
appear. 

Type  solids  and  similar  objects  may  be  drawn  for  form  and  proportion  in  two 
dimensions  only,  pleasing  shapes  of  bowles  and  vases  may  be  used,  showing  light 
and  dark  against  a  background  of  a  third  tone. 

Tones  in  landscape  may  be  studied.  Draw  sky  light,  ground  middle  tone  with 
dark  trees.  « 

Construction:  Measure  to  one-fourth  inch  and  the  foot,  using  rooms  and 
articles  of  furniture.  Drill  in  measuring  accurately  with  the  eye.  t  ^ 

A  good  problem  for  this  grade  is  construction  of  frames  for  weaving.  These 
should  be  of  card  board,  with  notched  end  or  holes  punched,  or  of  wooden  frame 
with  tacks  at  each  end.  The  article  to  be  woven  will  determine  size  and  proportion 

Design:  The  design  in  each  grade  is  to  be  closely  related  to  representation  and 
construction.  If  the  class  is  interested  in  weaving,  the  problem  may  be  matching 
colors  to  be  used,  and  border  ends  for  rugs  or  mats;  bags  for  books  or  change. 
Again  use  a  grayish  color  for  the  body  and  brighter  colors  for  the  stripes. 

References:  Nature  Work:  (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  46,  48);  Design: 
(Pages  15,  17,  19,  23,  40);  Construction:  (Pages  21,  42,  44);  Object  Drawing: 
(Pages  28,  30,  32);  Pose  and  Animal  Drawing:  (Pages  34,  36,  38);  Color: 
(Pages  50,  51). 


I 


103 


Fifth  Grade 

Representation:  In  plant  and  tree  life  continue  the  observation  of  form  pro¬ 
portion,  relative  size  of  parts,  showing  individual  character. 

Object  drawing  should  involve  the  study  of  the  circle  at  different  elevations  and 
positions  by  use  of  familiar  objects  without  handles,  spouts,  etc. 

Construction:  Make  a  working  drawing  for  an  object  of  two  dimensions;  a 
calendar  or  book  cover,  blotter  pad,  portfolio. 

Design:  This  work  may  be  a  continuation  of  grade  four  with  some  comple¬ 
mentary  colors  introduced. 

References:  Nature  Work:  (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  44,  48,  50);  Design: 
(Pages  19,  21,  23,  30,  32,  46,  52);  Object  Drawing:  (Pages  34,  36,  38);  Pose, 
Animal  and  Bird  Drawing:  (Pages  25,  27,  40,  42);  Color:  (Pages  54,  55). 

Sixth  Grade 

Representation :  Continue  plant  life  from  the  fifth  grade,  introducing  “accent.” 
Work  for  quality  of  line  in  pencil,  keeping  the  lines  in  gray  tones,  accenting  where 
the  shadows  appear.  Shade  the  leaves  and  flowers. 

In  object  drawing,  look  for  shadow  on  the  object,  also  the  cast  shadow  on  the 
table  by  its  side.  Remember  it  is  foreshadowed  as  well  as  the  circle,  and  always 
represent  it  with  a  horizontal  stroke. 

Construction:  Measure  to  one-eighth  inch.  Draw  to  scale.  Continue  the 
work  of  grade  five,  insisting  on  more  and  more  accurate  drawing. 

Plan  a  box  or  bird  house  and  make  a  drawing  of  each  side  on  a  small  scale.  A 
portfolio  or  book  cover  could  be  planned  and  drawn  to  scale. 

Design:  Continue  the  work  in  decorative  arrangement  to  be  applied  to  the 
special  interest  of  this  grade.  Excellent  directions  for  formal  decorations  for 
corners  by  paper  cutting  are  given  in  the  Prang  Books. 

References:  Nature  Work:  (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  46,  48);  Design: 
(Pages  17,  27,  34,  36,  38,  40);  Pose  and  Animal  Drawing:  (Pages  42, 44) ;  Color: 
(Pages  54,  55). 


0 


MUSIC. 


“I  hear  America  singing”,  sang  Walt  Whitman,  the  bard  of  Democracy.  And 
the  “varied  carols”  which  the  “good,  grey  poet”  heard  were  the  songs  which  give  a 
soul  to  work  and  which  minister  to  the  enjoyment  of  leisure  hours.  This  indicates, 
it  would  seem,  the  true  purpose  of  music  in  the  people’s  life.  And  consequently 
the  primary  aim  of  the  teaching  of  music  in  the  public  schools  should  be  the 
enjoyment  of  good  music  and  its  proper  appreciation.  Its  object  is  not  to  produce 
great  singers.  Except  for  a  limited  few,  and  only  incidentally  for  them,  there  will 
be  no  vocational  value  in  the  study.  But  the  study  can  result  for  all  in  a  knowledge 
of  at  least  some  of  the  melodies  that  form  the  musical  inheritance' of  the  race,  in 
the  power  to  appreciate  them,  and  in  some  degree  in  the  ability  to  participate  in 
the  singing  of  them. 

In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  fundamental  problem  in  the  teaching 
of  music  is  “how  to  cultivate  an  affection  for  the  subject  and  at  the  same  time 
accomplish  the  drill  necessary  for  skill”.  The  nature  of  children,  as  well  as  the  na¬ 
ture  of  the  problem,  indicates  that  there  are  two  natural  divisions  in  the  elementary 
schools,  in  the  first  of  which,  from  grades  One  to  Three,  the  procedure  is  from  song 
to  notation,  while  in  the  second,  from  grades  Four  to  Six,  it  is  from  notation  to 
song. 

The  specific  aims  during  the  period  from  grades  One  to  Three  should  be:  (1) 
the  awakening  of  musical  interest;  (2)  the  memorizing  of  desirable  songs;  (3) 
learning  to  use  the  voice  expressively  through  song;  (4)  developing  musical  dis¬ 
crimination;  and  (5)  learning  notation.  And  the  first  step  toward  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  these  aims,  is  the  proper  selection  of  songs.  The  teacher  is  not  bound  to 
use  the  childish  for  children’s  singing.  The  child’s  natural  characteristic  of  imifa- 
tiveness  and  his  consequent  power  to  sing  by  rote  makes  it  possible  to  teach  to 
youngest  school  children  even  the  most  beautiful  melodies.  It  is  these  songs  that 
have  stood  the  test  of  time  and  so  proved  their  attractiveness,  that  will  best  arouse 
the  interest  of  children  in  music.  These  songs  should  be  memorized  and  repeatedly 
used,  year  after  year,  not  with  the  idea  of  technical  mastery,  but  with  the  purpose 
of  bringing  about  enjoyment,  and  the  power  to  use  the  voice  expressively  in  song. 
As  the  interest  in  singing  is  aroused,  it  becomes  natural  and  easy  to  lead  the 
children  into  a  better  understanding  of  music  and  an  increase  of  discrimination  and 
skill  through  the  learning  of  notation.  The  ability  to  read  music  is  thus  a 
necessary  accomplishment  in  learning  music,  but  it  is  only  a  means  toward  the 
end  of  knowirtg  music,  singing  it,  and  enjoying  it. 

In  grades  Four  to  Six,  because  of  the  ages  of  the  children,  drill  work  can  most 
effectively  be  accomplished.  Here  the  procedure  is  from  notation  to  song.  If  the 
children  of  these  grades  will  not  sing  as  expressively  as  the  younger  children  or 
with  the  spontaneity  of  the  younger  ones,  they  can  be  interested  in  competitive 
trials  of  skill  and  in  the  problems  of  note-reading.  Speed  in  notation  work  and 
music  reading  by  phrases  should  here  be  emphasized. 

The  wise  teacher  will  not  limit  the  music  of  her  school  to  chorus  singing  by  her 
classes,  but  will  endeavor  to  provide  means  for  training  her  children  in  the  proper 
appreciation  of  masterpieces  which  may  be  beyond  the  ability  of  children  to  render. 
For  this  purpose,  graphophones  such  as  the  Edison,  the  Victrola,  the  Pathephone, 


etc.,  are  generally  used.  There  is  a  wealth  of  material  available  for  this  purpose, 
and  most  manufactifrers  or  dealers  in  instruments  of  this  kind  have  carefully 
graded  selections  for  school  use. 

It  is  eminently  worth  while  from  many  standpoints  for  the  teacher  to  encourage 
the  formation  of  a  school  orchestra  if  possible.  This  can  meet  outside  of  school 
hours,  if  necessary;  and  in  various  community  meetings  can  do  much  for  the  en¬ 
tertainment  of  the  people  and  for  the  building  up  of  a  good  school  spirit.  Especi¬ 
ally,  too,  will  the  wise  teacher  promote  community  singing,  in  which  not  only  her 
pupUs  but  the  adults  of  the  community  as  well  may  take  part.  There  is  now  a 
peculiar  timehnessin  such  an  enterprise;  and  it  undoubtedly  will  do  much  toward 
making  the  school  the  real  center  of  its  community. 

Texts:  Qjngdon  Music  Readers  and  Dann’s  Music  Course. 


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SECTION  IV. 

Junior  High  School,  Including  7th,  8th,  and  9th  Grades. 


OUTLINE  OF  STUDIES  BY  YEARS. 


Note — ^The  work  of  the  first  and  second  year  of  the  Junior  High  School 
(7th  and  8th  grades)  is  outlined  so  as  to  provide  for  the  subjects  that  our  law 
requires  to  be  taught  in  the  common  schools.  These  outlines  added  to  the 
elementary  section  will  make  a  complete  Manual  for  the  ordinary  one-room 
school  or  other  school  that  is  not  prepared  to  organize  a  Junior  High  School. 

For  the  third  year  (9th  grade)  several  subjects  are  listed  that  may  be  taught 
in  an  elementary  way  to  seventh  or  eighth  grade  pupils  in  schools  with  well 
organized  Junior  High  Schools.  In  such  a  school  classes  of  students  with  special 
needs  and  work  adapted  to  those  needs  may  be  organized. 

Seventh  Grade  (1st  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Literature — ^Text:  Bison’s  Grammar  School  Literature,  Book  Two. 

Supplementary  Reading:  See  recommendations  in  the  discussion 
of  the  subject. 

Language,  Composition  and  Grammar — ^Text:  Kimball’s  Elementary  Engljish 

Book  Two. 

Geography — Re-study  important  parts  of  Frye’s  FJigher  Geography  and  use 

Geographical  Readers  and  Bulletins. 

Arithmetic — Text:  Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  pp.  116  to  226.  • 
Agriculture — Text:  Benson  and  Betts’  Agriculture.  See  outline  as  to 

use  of  text  and  material. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene — ^Text:  Davison’s  Health  Lessons,  Book  II. 

U.  S.  History — Text:  Mace’s  School  History,  pp.  1-295. 

Drawing — Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books  No.  47. 

Music — ^Text:  Congdon  Music  Readers  and  Dann’s  Music  Course. 

Eighth  Grade  (2nd  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Literature — Text:  Bison’s  Grammar  School  Literature,  Books  Three  and 

Four. 

Language,  Composition  and  Grammar — ^Text:  Kimball’s  Elementary  Eng- 

lisj|,  Book  Two. 

Arithmetic — ^Text:  Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  pp.  227-344. 
Agriculture — Text:  Benson  and  Betts’  Agriculture,  and  State  and  Federal 

Bulletins. 

U.  S.  History — Text:  Mace’s  School  History,  pp.  295-477. 

Civics — Text:  Dunn’s — The  Community  and  the  Citizen  with  West  Vir¬ 
ginia  Supplement. 

Drawing — Text:  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books,  No.  48. 

Music — ^Text:  Congdon  Music  Readers  and  Dann’s  Music  Course. 

Ninth  Grade  (3rd  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Note — ^From  the  subjects  listed  below  a  year’s  work  suited  to  the  students 
can  be  organized. 


i 


108 


% 

Literature — See  outline  for  selections  to  be  used. 

Texts:  A  History  of  English  Literature — ^Hinchman. 

American  Literature — ^Metcalf. 

Macmillan  Pocket  Classics. 

Composition  and  Grammar — See  outline  for  work  to  be  done. 

Text:  English  Composition — ^Brooks,  Book  I,  II. 

Algebra — ^Text:  Slaught  and  Lennes. 

Household  Arts — ^Texts:  Kinne  and  Cooley: 

The  Home  and  the  Family. 

Foods  and  Household  Management. 

Shelter  £fnd  Clothing. 

Fuher — Constructive  Sewing,  Books  I,  IV. 

(See  outline  for  other  books  and  suggestions.) 

Industrial  Arts  or  Manual  Training — ^Bench  Work  Tablet  No.  9 — Burton. 

The  National  Individual  Lesson  Series  in  Bench  Work. 
(See  list  of  books  recommended  in  outline  of  Industrial  Arts.) 

Agriculture — ^Text:  Water’s  Essentials  in  Agriculture. 

Use  many  bulletins  and  outlines  for  farm  projects.  College  of  Agriculture,  Morgantown,  can  furnish  details 
of  work  in  this  subject  for  ninth  grade.  No  outline  is  given  in  this  Manual. 

Modern  European  History — Text:  West’s  Modem  World. 

(No  outline  given  in  this  Manual.  The  State  Board  will  give  suggestions  on  inquiry.) 

General  Science — ^Texts:  A  Year  in  Science — ^Weckel  and  Thalman. 

Manual  for  A  Year  in  Science — Weckel  and  Thalman. 

(No  outline  given  in  this  Manual.  ^The  State  Board  will  give  suggestions  on  inquiry.) 

Music  and  Drawing. 

(These  subjects  may  be  offered  in  this  year  when  strong  teachers  can  be  secured.  The  State  Board  of  Education 
will  furnish  suggestions  about  the  courses  for  ninth  year  on  application.) 

Application  of  Some  Common  Branches  in  Upper  Grades. 

Care  in  Writing — While  no  formal  lessons  are  to  be  given,  teachers  should 
require  good,  neat  writing  in  the  usual  school  work.  Carelessness  of  teachers 
and  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  and  high  school  may  make  useless  all  of  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  wTiting  in  the  lower  grades. 

Attention  to  Spelling — ^By  the  end  of  the  6th  grade  a  pupil  should  know 
how  to  spell  all  the  words  he  is  likely  to  use  in  wnting,  and  it  should  not  be 
necessary  to  organize  a  spelling  class  and  have  a  separate  period  for  it  in  the 
Junior  High  School.  Flowever,  teachers  should  not  allow  pupils  to  complete 
the  7th  and  8th  grades  without  proficiency  in  this  subject.  SpelUng  can  be 
taught  and  tested  through  written  work  in  other,. subjects,  and  through  the 
dictionary  habit.  The  text  books  can  be  used  as  a  guide  for  the  teacher.  Omit 
any  words  not  commonly  used  by  the  average  person  in  his  writing. 

Seventh  year — ^Mastery  of  Words,  Book  II,  pages  42-77. 

Eighth  year — Mastery  of  Words,  Book  II,  pages  78-117. 

Geography  Broadened,  Enriched  and  Reviewed  (7th  Grade) — In  the 
seventh  grade  geography  will  be  studied  for  the  most  part,  in  connection  with 
other  subjects,  such  as  history,  civics,  and  agriculture,  the  textbook  being  used 
for  reference.  All  the  important  topics  in  the  history  work  should  have  their 
geographical  settings  carefully  studied  and  the  influences  of  geographic  condi¬ 
tions  should  be  thoroughly  discussed.  The  making  of  maps  illustrating  his¬ 
torical  matter  should  be  encouraged.  In  the  study  of  agriculture  various  crop 
regions  should  be  studied  and  comparisons  made  with  similar  regions  in  other 


1G9 


countries.  By  the  end  of  the  seventh  grade  the  student  should  have  acquired 
a  good  knowledge  of: 

The  general  conditions  which  determine  the  distribution  of  life  form — plant 
and  animal. 

The  races  of  men  and  the  civilization  developed  under  the  conditions  of  their 
environment. 

The  chief  lines  of  human  industry — agriculture,  grazing,  lumbering,  fishing 
mining,  manufacturing,  commerce. 

The  world  that  will  aid  in  interpreting  literature  and  current  events. 


LITERATURE. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Complete  the  second  book  of  “Elson’s  Grammar  School  Literature  Readers.” 
Supplementary  reading  should  be  in  the  longer  prose  and  poetic  classics.  The 
year’s  work  might  consist  of  reproductive  selections  from  Irving,  Poe,  Haw¬ 
thorne,  Longfelllow  and  Clemens.  Incidentally  some  instruction  may  be  given 
concerning  the  lives  of  these  authors,  but  this  should  be  brief  and  informal 
One  of  Cooper’s  stories  might  be  studied,  partly  in  class  and  partly  in  home 
readings.  “The  Last  of  the  Mohicans”  is  particularly  good. 

Suggestions  for  teaching  literature  have  been  given  under  the  outline  for 
sixth  grade.  (See  page  41.)  Make  the  work  more  mature,  as  befits  the  age 
of  the  pupils  and  the  nature  of  the  literature.  Give  elementary  but  definite 
instruction  about  the  fundamental  laws  of  artistic  writing:  unity,  coherence, 
proportion,  development  of  plot,  grouping  of  characters,  use  of  descriptive 
passages;  and  give  some  instruction  in  meters;  kinds  of  poetic  feet,  principles 
of  rhythm  and  rhyme,  alliteration,  and  assonance. 

Have  the  children  memorize  and  recite  literary  selections  in  the  literary  society. 
In  case  the  child  does  not  memorize  easily,  allow  him  to  read  a  well-prepared 
selection  from  the  book. 

* 

Encourage  much  reading  of  library  books.  The  teacher  should  be  familiar 
with  the  books  in  the  library,  and  should  often  refer  her  pupils  to  them.  The 
course  in  reading  and  literature  that  does  not  succeed  in  getting  the  children 
into  the  reading  habit  has  failed  in  one  of  its  important  functions.  Show  the 
children  how  to  “get  the  heart  out  of  a  book;”  how  to  perceive  the  central 
idea  and  purpose,  the  leading  characteristics,  how  the  book  differs  from  other 
books.  Remember  that  the  boys  and  the  girls  often  want  and  need  different 
kinds  of  books.  The  ideal  is:  Read  much,  read  rapidly,  read  with  intelligence 
and  appreciation.  Let  the  children  take  the  books  home  with  them  or  read 
in  the  school  room  when  they  have  leisure. 

Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Read  Boolis  Three  and  Four  in  the  Elson  Grammar  School  Literature  Readers. 
In  case  the  children  cannot  buy  both  books,  have  them  get  Book  Four  rather 
than  Book  Three.  Supplementary’’  reading  should  be  in  the  longer  classics.  If 
American  authors  have  been  studied  in  the  seventh  grade,  British  authors  might 
be  taken  up  in  this  year.  Scott’s  “Ivanhoe,”  Stevenson’s  “Treasure  Island, 


# 


110 


and  poems  of  Wordsworth,  Scott,  Tennyson,  Macaulay,  and  Kipling,  are  valuable 
for  this  grade. 

Continue  the  study  as  suggested  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  years.  The  children 
should  learn  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  splendid  characters  in  the  books 
they  read,  should  know  them  as  familiar  friends,  should  allude  to  them  in  their 
conversation,  should  admire  and  imitate  their  virtues.  They  should  discuss  and 
debate  the  various  points  that  arise  in  the  action,  just  as  they  do  in  real  life. 

Continue  dramatization.  Continue  the  reading  of  literature  in  literary  society. 
Continue  the  reading  of  books  in  school  and  home  libraries.  Encourage  children 
to  start  a  small  library  of  their  own.  Teach  them  how  to  discriminate  between 
choice  books  and  the  trashy  ones  they  sometimes  find.  Try  to  persuade  each 
child  in  the  eighth  grade  to  read  one  book  a  month  during  the  year. 

Ninth  Grade  (Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 

t 

(Two  Periods  a  Week.) 

The  literature  for  this  year  consists  of  classic  and  legendary  narrative  prose 
arid  a  few  simple  narrative  poems.  It  is  best  to  alternate  prose  and  poetry. 

The  prose  for  class  study  is  as  follow^s: 

Stories  from  the  Old  Testament.  Use  the  Bible  itself  or  some  such  edition  as 
the  Riverside  Literature  Series  No.  46,  15c.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Stories  from  Arabian  Nights.  A  good  collection  is  that  found  in  Riverside 
Literature  Series  Nos.  117-118,  40c. 

The  Odyssey.  Riverside  Literature  Series  No.  43,  75c. 

Other  Greek  Stories.  Kingsley’s  Greek  Heroes,  E.  P.  Dutton,  N.  Y.,  35c. 

Stories  of  King  Arthur.  Use  one  of  the  following  versions:  Lanier’s  The 
Boy’s  King  Arthur,  Chas.  Scribner’s  Sons,  N.  Y.,  81.20;  Pyle’s  Story  of  King 
Arthur  and  His  Knights,  Scribner,  $2.50;  Stevens  and  Allen’s  King  Arthur  Stories, 
Riverside  Literature  Series  No.  179,  40c. 

The  poems  for  class  study  are  as  follow's: 

Some  of  Longfellow’s  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Riverside  Literature  Series, 
Nos.  33,  34  and  35,  in  one  volume,  50c. 

Drake’s  The  Culprit  Fay,  Orvdlle  Brewer  Co.f  Chicago,  10c. 

Some  of  Macaulay’s  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  Riverside  Literature  Series,  No. 
45. 

Whittier’s  Snow  Bound,  Riverside  Literature  Series,  No.  4,  15c 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND  GRAMMAR. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Textbook:  Kimball’s  Elementary  English;  Book  II. 

Omit  all  of  Part  One  (the  first  section  of  the  book,  which  contains  nothing 
but  technical  grammar,  most  of  which  is  unnecessary  for  children  and  far  too 
difficult  for  them),  referring  to  this  part  of  the  book  as  you  see  occasion.  In 
Part  Two  complete  chapter  one  (pages  151-187),  chapter  four  (pages  216-229) 
chapter  two  (pages  188-194),  and  chapter  five  (pages  230-242),  in  the  order 
indicated. 

The  teacher  should  test  all  grammatical  material  by  examining  it  to  see  if 
it  assists  in  training  pupils  in  practical,  intelligent  speaking  and  writing;  any 
material  that  does  not  meet  this  test  should  be  rigidly  excluded.  In  some  places 
the  teacher  will  have  to  bridge  the  gap  left  by  the  omitted  lessons,  but  this  can 
easily  be  done.  Leave  out  all  the  elaborate  and  complex  machinery  of  grammar 
and  teach  only  the  barest  essentials.  Teach  these  plainly  and  follow  them  up 
in  the  language  of  the  pupils. 

Continue  the  oral  work  and  writing  of  the  previous  grades.  Emphasize  dur¬ 
ing  this  year  the  construction  of  sentences.  They  should  be  neither  too  long  nor 
too  short;  an  average  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  words  is  desirable,  though  some 
sentences  will  be  longer  and  others  somewhat  shorter.  Train  in  mixing  declara¬ 
tive,  interrogative,  exclamatory,  and  imperative  sentences.  Train  in  writing 
complex  sentences;  children  usually  express  themselves  too  frequently  in  simple 
and  compound  sentences.  See  to  it  that  the  sentences  have  clearness,  force, 
unity,  coherence,  and  variety.  Work  of  this  kind  must  be  done  patiently  and 
prudently,  so  that  the  children  may  retain  their  naturalness  while  attaining 
other  desirable  qualities.  Study  sentences  in  the  literature  lesson  and  help 
the  pupils  to  model  their  sentences  after  the  easy-flowing,  well  constructed 
sentences  they  find  in  the  prose  of  good  authors. 

Review  and  apply  constantly  the  facts  and  rules  of  punctuation.  Continue 
the  dictionary  work.  The  pupils  should  now  consult  the  large  dictionary  and 
should  be  trained  to  look  not  only  for  the  meaning  and  spelling  but  for  the  way 
in  which  the  word  is  used,  synonyms,  etc.  Send  the  pupils  to  the  dictionary 
to  settle  practical  questions  of  language.  For  example,  a  child  has  used  this 
sentence:  “We  attended  the  social.”  Raise  the  question  as  to  whether  “social” 
is  the  correct  word  and  ask  the  pupils  to  find  out.  If  you  can  get  a  child  to  consult 
the  dictionary  once  a  day,  you  have  put  him  on  the  road  to  a  good  education. 

If  the  diary  work  started  in  the  fifth  grade  has  not  been  kept  up,  it  may  be 
started  again  this  year.  Pupils  should  always  be  encouraged  to  keep  account 
books  of  the  money  received  and  spent  by  them.  Continue  the  writing  of  articles 
for  newspapers.  In  country  schools,  send  a  weekly  letter  to  a  county  paper. 
Have  the  children  gather  the  items  and  write  them  out  and  arrange  them  as  a 
class  exercise. 

Continue  close,  but  kindly  criticism  of  language,  both  spoken  and  written. 
Encourage  the  pupils  to  help  each  other.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  group  students 
in  pairs,  the  two  to  work  together  in  preparation,  writing,  and  revision  of  com- 


112 


positions.  Occasionally,  keep  a  composition  a  week  or  two,  then  hand  it  back 
to  the  writer  for  his  own  criticisms. 

A  literary  society  should  be  organized  this  year  for  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
pupils.  Meetings  should  be  held  in  the  evening,  if  possible;  and  the  children 
should  elect  their  own  officers.  The  teacher  should  serve  as  critic.  The  program 
should  consist  of  music,  the  reading  of  good  literature,  reproductions  of  inter¬ 
esting  stories  and  an  occasional  dramatization,  articles  on  the  various  activities 
of  the  school,  a  school  paper  of  jokes,  news  items,  and,  whenever  possible,  a 
debate.  Nothing  will  give  more  encouragement  to  English  work  than  a  literary 
society. 

If  a  society  cannot  be  organized,  the  school  should  at  least  issue  a  weekly 
paper.  It  should  be  made  up  of  the  best  composition  work  of  the  week,  of  special 
articles,  of  jokes,  items,  advertisements,  etc.  Perhaps  some  pupil  will  copy  the 
paper  on  his  typewTiter,  or  perhaps  a  mimeograph  copy  can  be  made. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  bulletin  board  upon  which  to  post  notices,  programs,  etc. 
The  teacher  should  carefully  watch  the  language  used  and  criticize  it  as  occasion 
offers. 

A  verse-making  class  may  interest  some  of  the  pupils.  It  may  be  held  at  noon 
or  after  school.  It  is  best  not  to  take  any  of  the  regular  time  of  the  school  for 
this  work. 

During  this  year  assign  much  written  and  oral  work  that  gives  the  pupils  an 
audience  or  interested  readers. 

Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Omit  all  of  Part  One  except  as  directed  under  seventh  grade  work.  In  Part 
Two  complete  chapter  three  (pages  195-215)  and  chapter  six  (pages  243-258). 
In  addition  to  the  textbook  work  (which  should  not  take  more  than  two  days  a 
week),  have  much  oral  and  written  composition  work  based  on  what  the  children 
are  doing,  what  they  have  seen  and  read,  what  they  are  interested  in.  Teach 
language  all  the  time. 

Continue  the  oral  composition  work  and  the  writing  of  paragraphs  and  com¬ 
positions.  Train  the  pupils  to  consult  encyclopedias  and  reference  books  to 
get  material.  Train  them  to  organize  material,  make  notes  and  outlines,  and 
speak  and  write  clearly,  confidently^  and  intelligently.  Assign  subjects  that 
lead  to  thinking  but  that  are  within  the  children’s  ability. 

Continue  the  literary  society  work  and  everything  else  that  leads  the  children 
to  express  themselves  before  an  audience  or  for  readers.  Continue  letter  writing. 
Remember  that  after  they  leave  school,  about  the  only  writing  the  children 
are  called  upon  to  do  is  the  ™ting  of  letters;  therefore,  make  sure  that  before 
they  leave  school  they  can  write  chatty,  interesting,  friendly  letters,  and  straight¬ 
forward,  clear,  accurate  business  letters. 

Review  and  practice  all  the  formal  elements:  punctuation,  spelling,  para¬ 
graphing,  etc.  In  all  the  classes  and  throughout  the  day  keep  watch  on  the 
children’s  language,  endeavoring  to  break  up  all  bad  habit  of  speech  and  espe¬ 
cially  to  arouse  in  the  children  a  desire  to  speak  well.  Teach  the  children  to 
imitate  intelligently  ^e  good  qualities  in  the  literature  they  read.  You  do  not 
want  to  make  authors  of  your  children,  but -you  should  train  them  to  borrow 
from  the  writing  of  authors  those- qualities  that  will  make  their  own  work  better. 


/ 


Ninth  Grade  (.Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 

I  •  I  •  ’  •  • 

Composition,  two  periods  a  week. 

Grammar,  one  period  a  week. 

Literature,  two  periods  a  week. 

Composition  (Two  Periods  a  Week). 

The  composition  work  of  the  first  year  consists  of  the  following: 

First.  Oral  compositions,  chiefly  narrative.  These  are  both  reproductive 
(oral  re-telling  of  stories  read  or  told  in  class  or  read  outside  or  stories  suggested 
by  the  reading)  and  original.  The  original  stories  are  based  upon  experience  or 
observation  and  upon  imagination.  There  is  more  original  work  than  repro¬ 
ductive,  and  the  two  are  alternated  and  mingled.  An  occasional  oral  exposition 
on  some  simple,  familiar  subject  is  assigned. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  the  students  should  have  developed  considerable  power 
in  telling  a  straight-forward,  well-balanced  story,  with  a  point,  in  easy,  familiar, 
natural  English. 

Second.  Written  compositions,  chiefly  short  narratives,  and  social  letters. 

a.  For  the  first  half  of  the  year  the  written  stories  consist  of  single 
paragraphs.  Fables,  jokes,  little  incidents  and  situations  based  largely 
on  experience,  accounts  of  games,  vacations,  trips,  school  events,  etc.j 
supply  the  materials  out  of  which  these  paragraphs  are  constructed.  In 
the  last  half  of  the  year  the  writing  of  longer  stories,  of  two,  three,  or  four* 
paragraphs,  is  practiced.  The  subject  matter  of  these  stories  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  single  paragraphs. 

b.  Throughout  the  year  the  students  write  social  letters  at  least  once 
a  month — if  possible,  every  two  or  three  Weeks;  these  are  letters  to  real 
correspondents,  relatives  or  friends;  news-letters,  gossipy,  chatty  letters,- 
about  all  those  subjects  which  the  writer  and  his  correspondent  find  inter¬ 
esting.  The  students  are  encouraged  to  write  idiomatically  and  colloquiall^y' 
with  animation  and  humor.  These  letters  should  be,  in  the  strictest  sense, 
self-expression,  and  the  teacher  should  not  be  satisfied  until  his  students 
have  learned  to  express  themselves  easily  and  naturally,  in  this  form  of 
writing.  Incidentally,  instruction  and  training  is  given  in  penmanship, 
the  appearance  of  the  letter,  paragraphing,  punctuation,  spelling,  etc. 
All  this,  however,  important  as  it  is,  is  subordinated  to  the  content  of  the 
letter. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  the  student  should  have  attained  some  proficiency  in 
writing  brief,  simple,  well-planned  stories  of  their  own  experience  and  obser¬ 
vation  and  in  writing  easy,  natural  social  letters.  They  should  have  gained  some 
power  over  such  details  as  sentence  structure,  paragraphing,  capitalization, 
preparation  of  manuscript,  and  easy  punctuation — especially  the  period,  the 
dash,  the  colon,  and  the  comma. 

No  text  in  composition  is  used  by  the  class.  So  far  as  is  possible,  all  written 
and  oral  work  is  based  on  the  interests  and  activities  of  the  students.  There  are 
hundreds  of  subjects  to  be  found,  if  the  teacher  will  but  keep  his  ears  and  eyes 
open.  If  he  wishes  to  have  some  books  to  Suggest  subjects  and  guide  him  in 
his  work,  he  will  find  the  following  helpful: 


114 


Smith  &  Maxwell,  “Writing  in  English,”  American  Book  Go.,  Cincinnati; 
Scott  &  Denny,  “Elementary’’  English  Composition,”  Allyn  &  Bacon,  Chicago 
LeMs,  “First  Manual  of  Composition,”  Henry  Holt  &  Go.,  New  York;  Thomas, 
“Study  of  the  Paragraph,”  American  Book  Go.,  Cincinnati. 

4 

Grammar  (One  Period  a  Week). 

Grammar  can  be  best  taught  in  connection  with  literature  and  compo¬ 
sition  work.  Very  often  a  student  fails  to  get  the  meaning  from  a  sentence 
he  is  reading  because  he  does  not  perceive  the  grammatical  construction  of 
certain  words;  that  is  the  time  to  teach  that  grammatical  construction.  Very 
often  a  student  makes  a  grammatical  blunder  in  his  speech  or  writing;  that  is 
the  time  to  teach  that  grammatical  fact.  The  teacher  should  never  fail  to  teach 
practical  grammar  on  these  occasions  or  other  occasions  that  may  arise — though, 
of  course,  this  must  be  incidental  to  the  literature  and  composition  work.  This 
is  the  best  kind  of  grammar  teaching,  since  it  comes  at  the  moment  when  the 
student  sees  the  value  and  the  application  of  the  grammatical  fact  or  principle. 

It  is  desirable,  however,  to  take  one  period  a  week  for  definite,  systematic 
instruction  in  English  grammar.  And  the  most  logical  time  for  this  seems  to 
be  the  first  year  in  High  School,  inasmuch  as  a  great  deal  of  grammatical  knowledge 
is  needed  in  the  advanced  years  of  the  course.  One  period  a  week  is  sufficient, 
after  the  language  and  grammar  study  in  the  grades,  to  teach  all  the  necessary 
and  important  grammar  facts  and  principles.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  train  in 
the  use  of  grammatically  good  language;  that  training  must  be  given  in  the 
literature  and  language  and  composition  work  of  the  course  and  in  all  the  activities 
and  subjects  of  the  school. 

It  may  be  set  down  as  a  general  principle  that  no  detail  of  grammar  should 
be  taught  that  does  not  have  direct  relation  to  the  students’  reading,  speaking, 
and  writing.  Grammar  should  not  be  taught  for  mental  discipline.  Grammar 
should  not  be  taught  to  prepare  for  foreign  language.  Grammar  should  be 
taught  only  as  a  practical  aid  in  the  arts  of  language  expression  and  of  inter¬ 
preting  the  language  expression  of  others. 

No  text  is  used  by  the  students.  The  teacher  develops  all  grammatical  facts 
and  principles  inductively.  The  dictionary  should  be  used  to  look  up  irregular 
plurals,  parts  of  verbs,  etc.  A  good  book  for  the  teacher  to  use  as  guide  and 
reference  is  Buehler’s  “Modern  English  Grammar,”  Newson  &  Co.,  New  York. 
It  employs  the  terms  recommended  by  the  Joint  Commission  on  Grammatical 
Nomenclature.  The  book  contains  much  more  than  is  to  be  taught  the  students. 

During  the  year  therefore,  the  following  is  to  be  taught,  though  not 
necessarily  in  the  following  order; 

I.  Sentences. 

A.  Classification  as  to  form  and  use. 

B.  Whole  and  simple  subject  and  predicate. 

a.  Natural  and  inverted  order. 

b.  Relation  of  subject  and  predicate. 

C.  Complements. 

a.  Object  of  verb  and  preposition. 

b.  Subject  complement  (1). 

c.  Objective  complement  (2). 


115 


D.  Modifiers. 

a.  Words  (3). 

b.  Phrases. 

c.  Clauses. 

E.  Oral  sentence  analysis  (4). 

II.  Parts  of  Speech.  , 

A.  Nouns. 

a.  General  functions. 

b.  Kinds:  common,  proper,  collective  (5) 

c.  Properties. 

1.  Gender  (6). 

2.  Number  (7). 

3.  Case  (8). 

d.  Other  substantives. 

B.  Pronouns. 

a.  General  functions. 

b.  Relation  to  antecedent. 

c.  Kinds. 

1.  Personal. 

a.  Gender  (9). 

b.  Person  (10). 

c.  Number. 

d.  Case  (11). 

2.  Interrogative, 

a.  Case. 

3.  Relative. 

a.  Gender. 

b.  Case  (11). 

C.  Adjectives  and  adverbs. 

a.  General  functions. 

b.  Distinction  between. 

c.  Comparison  (12). 

D.  Verbs. 

a.  General  functions. 

b.  Classification, 

1.  As  to  form:  regular  and  irregular  (13). 

2.  As  to  use:  transitive,  intransitive,  auxiliary. 

c.  Properties. 

1.  Voice  (9). 

2.  Mode  (14). 

3.  Tense  (15). 

4.  Person  and  number  (16). 

d.  Participles  and  infinitives. 

1.  General  functions. 

e.  Synopsis  of  verbs  (17).  ’ 

E.  Conjunctions. 

a.  General  functions. 

•  b.  Distinction  between  co-ordinating  and  sub-ordinating. 

F.  Interjections. 

G.  Prepositions. 


116 


•  ’2 


(1)  Emphasize  pronounds  as  subject  complements. 

(2)  Give  this  only  brief  treatment. 

(3)  Treat  only  briefly  here,  more  fully  under  parts  of  speech.  • 

(4)  Informal  and  simple. 

(5)  Omit  all  other  kinds. 

(6)  Should  not  be  emphasized. 

(7)  Emphasize  regular  formation  of  plural. 

(8)  Emphasize  possessive  case. 

(9)  Need  not  be  emphasized. 

(10)  Omit  the  “thou-thee”  forms. 

(11)  Emphasize. 

(12)  Emphasize  irregular  forms. 

(13)  Emphasize  common  irregular  forms  often  misused. 

(14)  Emphasize  subjunctive  forms  of  “to  be.”  Omit  imperative. 

(15)  Emphasize  difference  between  regular  and  irregular  forms.  Emphasize 
auxiliaries  in  mode  functions.  Emphasize  “shall”  and  “will”  in  future 
tense. 

(16)  Emphasize  agreement  of  verb  with  subject. 

(17)  Do  not  insist  on  complete  conjugation  of  verbs.  Make  sure  that  all  the 
students  know  principal  parts  of  common  irregular  verbs  and  can  outline 
a  verb  from  these  principal  parts.  Emphasize  “to  be.” 


ARITHMETIC. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  pp.  116  to  226. 

Practical  Measurements,  p.  116.  Have  the  pupils  take  measurements, 
formulate  and  solve  many  practical  problems.  Give  pupils  exercises  in  judging 
moderate  distances  and  areas,  testing  their  own  judgment  by  actual  measurements. 

The  more  important  items  in  the  table  of  square  or  surface  measure  should 
be  learned. 

Units  and  definitions  should  be  taught  objectively  until  pupils  have  a  clear 
knowledge  of  them. 

Solve  as  many  of  the  practical  problems  given  in  the  text  as  the  needs  of  the 
pupils  seem  to  indicate. 

Analysis,  p.  155.  Teach  the  equation  and  its  properties  as  set  forth  in  the 
text,  taking  care  that  the  pupils  really  understand,  not  merely  commit  to  memory. 

Percentage,  p.  161.  Teach  definitions  and  terms  carefully,  illustrating  the 
meaning  and  use  of  each  term  such  as  percentage,  rate,  base,  etc. 

See  that  the  rules  for  finding  base,  rate  and  amount  are  understood,  not 
merely  committed  to  memory. 

In  Gain  and  Loss,  Commission  and  Brokerage,  Insurance,  Commer¬ 
cial  Discount,  Local  and  State  Taxes  and  Duties  or  Customs,  illustrate 
the  use  of  all  terms  whose  definitions  are  to  be  learned. 

Solve  many  practical  problems.  Have  the  pupils  formulate  and  solve  prac¬ 
tical  problems. 

Interest.  Teach  new  terms  the  same  way  as  in  percentage.  Pupils  should 
be  required  to  learn  thoroughly  one  way  of  computing  interest,  and  to  acquire 
facility  in  the  use  of  it. 

Annual  and  exact  interest  may  be  omitted  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 

Teach  compound  interest  with  special  application  to  savings  accounts. 

Teach  promissory  notes.  Pupils  should  be  able  to  prepare  a  promissory  note 
without  omitting  any  essential  detail.  Teach  the  terms,  maker,  payee,  indorse, 
negotiable,  and  maturity  as  applied  to  promissory  notes.  Teach  partial  pay¬ 
ments  including  the  solution  of  problems. 

Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Hamilton’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  pp.  227-344. 

The  following  subjects  may  be  omitted  if  all  the  subjects  outlined  in  the  text 
cannot  be  covered  in  the  time  given, — Exchange,  Longitude  and  Time, 
Powers  and  Roots,  Specific  Gravity,  The  Metric  System  until  its  use  in  the 
community  economic  life  is  established  either  by  law  or  custom.  Optional 
subjects,  pp.  345-356. 

Banks  and  Banking.*  Teach  all  new  terms  with  the  same  care  as  in  the 
seventh  grade.  Solve  illustrative  problems. 

Stocks  and  Bonds.  Teach  definitions  and  terms,  form  of  stock  certificate, 
coupon.  Solve  many  problems. 


118 


Ratio  and  Proportion.  Teach  definitions  and  terms,  simple  proportion, 
partition  proportion  and  partnership.  Solve  problems. 

Solve  problems  for  oral  and  written  analysis. 

Government  Land  Measures.  Teach  definitions  and  terms.  Solve  prob¬ 
lems. 

Mensuration.  Teach  definitions  and  terms  carefully  according  to  direc¬ 
tions  already  given.  Teach  finding  areas  of  surfaces  and  volumes  of  solids. 
Solve  many  problems. 

Agricultural  Problems — ^Teach  definitions  and  terms  and  solve  all  problems. 

Test  Problems,  p.  324.  Solve  all  or  as  many  as  the  needs  of  the  pupils  seem 
to  indicate. 

General  Review,  p.  330.  Solve  all  or  as  many  as  the  needs  of  the  pupils 
seem  to  indicate. 


ELEMENTARY  ALGEBRA. 


Ninth  Grade  (Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 


First  Half: 

1.  Introduction — use  of  letters  to  represent  numbers. 

2.  Simple  equations  and  problems. 

3.  Positive  and  negative  numbers — addition,  subtraction,  multiplication 
and  division  of  algebraic  numbers. 

4.  Simple  equations  involving  these  processes. 

5.  Factoring. 

6.  Equations  solved  by  factoring. 

7.  Common  factors  and  multiples. 

8.  Fractions — Reduction  to  lowest  terms;  addition,  subtraction,  multipli¬ 
cation  and  division  of  fractions. 

Second  Half; 

1.  Factoring  reviewed. 

2.  Complex  fractions. 

3.  Equations  involving  fractions. 

4.  Simultaneous  equations  of  the  first  degree  with  two  or  three  unknowns. 

5.  Powers  and  roots. 

6.  Equations  involving  radicals. 

7.  Quadratic  equations  solved  by  completing  the  square  and  by  formula. 

8.  Quadratic  equations  vith  two  unknowns. 

9.  Literal  equations. 

10.  Ratio  and  Proportion. 

11.  General  review  and  solution  of  many  problems. 


AGRICULTURE. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Agriculture  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  based  upon  the  funda¬ 
mental  principles  of  farm  science  and  practice.  The  work  of  these  years  forms 
a  transition  period,  bridging  the  way  from  the  nature-study  of  the  preceding 
grades  to  the  scientific  agriculture  of  the  high  school.  The  pupil  at  this  age  is 
beginning  to  enquire  into  the  “whys”  and  “wherefores”  of  agriculture  and, 
while  not  abandoning  the  nature-study  viev^Doint,  a  new  economic  viewpoint  is 
introduced. 


Textbook. 

The  adopted  textbook — Benson  and  Betts’  “Agriculture” — should  be  used  as 
a  guide.  Teachers  should  read  carefully  the  authors’  preface  and  the  chapter 
“To  the  Teacher”  at  the  end  of  the  book  to  understand  their  point  of  view. 
The  guiding  principles  there  laid  down  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  through¬ 
out  the  course. 


Supplementary  Literature. 

There  is  no  other  subject  in  the  curriculum  on  which  so  much  helpful  litera¬ 
ture  may  be  secured  as  upon  agriculture.  All  State  Agricultural  Colleges,  Experi¬ 
ment  Stations,  and  Extension  Departments  (addresses  on  p.  520,  textbook) 
publish  free  bulletins  and  circulars  covering  practically  every  phase  of  farming 
and  farm  life.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  likewise  pub¬ 
lished  many  special  bulletins  suitable  for  class  use  in  the  public  school.  Every 
teacher  should  have  at  hand  a  set  of  West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  bulletins  and  “Farmers’  Bulletins”  (p.  XI,  textbook).  Several  good 
farm  papers  should  be  placed  on  the  reading  desk  of  every  small  school  and 
the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  them  regularly. 

Home  Projects. 

The  study  of  agriculture  in  the  grades  should  give  to  country-minded  boys 
and  girls — those  who  have  a  taste  for  farming  and  for  country  life — an  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  do  real  constructive  work, — ^work  which  will  enable  them  to  create 
things  by  the  use  of  their  own  hands  and  brains.  This  is,  therefore,  an  ideal 
time  for  practical  school  and  home  projects,  in  the  rearing  of  farm  animals  and 
the  production  of  farm  crops.  School-directed  home  gardens  in  village  and 
town  schools,  and  summer  projects  in  the  country  school,  should  be  made  an 
important  part  of  the  course.  Project  record  forms,  instruction  leaflets  and 
other  helps  may  be  secured  from  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Mor¬ 
gantown,  W.  Va. 

This  is,  also  the  time  when  club  and  contest  ideas  can  be  utilized  to  the  best 
advantage.  Instructions  telling  how  to  organize  a  club  may  be  obtained  from 
the  State  Agent  in  Charge  of  Boys’  and  Girls’  Club  work,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 


120 


Teachers  should  make  the  most  of  the  “play  contests”  suggested  at  the  end  of 
each  chapter  in  the  textbook. 


Seasonal  Sequence. 

The  sequence  of  topics  and  subject  matter  in  agriculture  should  be  arranged 
according  to  seasons  in  so  far  as  the  school  term  will  permit.  A  subject  can  be 
taught  more  elYectively  at  the  time  when  it  engages  the  attention  of  practically 
everyone  in  the  community  than  at  other  seasons  For  example,  studying  the 
stand  of  corn  in  the  field,  corn  insects  and  diseases,  effects  of  proper  and  im¬ 
proper  cultivation,  making  silage,  and  selecting  and  storing  seed  corn,  are  fall 
subjects;  while  testing  seed  corn,  methods  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting  and 
cultivating  are  early  spring  sulrjects.  Certain  phases  of  soil  study,  the  care 
of  farm  animals,  the  care  and  repair  of  harness,  tools  and  farm  implements,  and 
practice  in  farm  carpentry,  can  be  taught  in  mid-winter — the  rest  period  in 
plant  and  animal  life. 


Surveys. 

Agriculture  in  the  grades  is  a  local  study  and  should  be  l)ased  upon  local 
materials,  practices  and  results,  'fo  obtain  this  necessary  information  relative 
to  the  farm  interests  and  activities  in  the  community — a  survey  similar  to  that 
suggested  in  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  Xo.  461,  p.  5,  should  be  made 
by  the  class  in  connection  with  its  study  of  each  crop  and  class  of  farm  animals. 
Instructions  on  how  to  make  and  use  the  farm  survey  may  be  oljtained  from 
the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 

Outline. 

Xo  attempt  is  made  to  outline  the  course  in  detail.  The  textbook  indicates 
clearly  the  scope  and  character  of  work  that  may  i^e  done  in  the  grades,  and 
the  following  suggestions  are  intended  primarily  to  aid  the  teacher  in  the  use 
of  supplementary  materials  and  exercises.  The  course  covers  two  years.  By 
combining  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  in  one  class  and  alternating  the 
lir.ft  and  second  years  there  will  be  l)ut  one  class  in  agriculture  each  year. 


SEVENTH  GRADE  (FIRST  YEAR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL). 

Part  I.  Farm  Crops. 

Chapter  8.  The  Potato.  Several  lessons  should  be  given  during  the  first 
week  of  school  on  the  improvement  of  potatoes  through  seed  selection  and  on 
harx^esting  and  storing  the  crop  (pages  124-129).  The  class  should  be  shown 
how  to  make  hill  selections  of  seed  potatoes  in  the  field 

Chapter  1.  Corn  Culture.  A  corn  survey  will  show  that  corn  is  grown  on 
practically  everx^  farm.  This  fact  alone  will  help  the  pupil  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  the  corn  crop  not  alone  in  West  Virginia  but  in  the  entire  United 
States.  The  characteristics  of  a  good  plant,  seed  selection,  methods  of  harvesting 
the  crop,  kinds  of  silos  and  how  silage  is  made,  should  be  taught  through  direct 
field  obserx^ations.  “Topics  for  Investigation,”  pp.  21-22,  suggests  splendid 


1^1 


material  for  correlation  with  arithmetic.  The  seed  test,  study  of  soil  prepara 
tion,  planting,  the  corn  planter,  cultivation,  and  corn  enemies  should  be  deferred 
until  February.  (See  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  617,  “School  Lessons  on  Corn’ 
for  practical  exercises  and  suggestions  on  how  to  correlate  the  study  of  corn  with 
other  subjects  in  the  curriculum.)  Have  you  a  set  of  Instruction  Leaflets  on  the 
One  Acre  Corn  project? 

Chapter  5.  Wheat.  For  obvious  reasons  special  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  study  of  wheat.  Pupils  should  consult  their  geography  and  make  an 
outline  map  of  the  United  States  hnd  of  the  principal  nations  of  the  world  show¬ 
ing  the  important  wheat  growing  areas.  State  Farm  Tests  show  that  Fulcaster 
and  Gypsy  (bearded),  and  China  and  Poole  (smooth)  are  good  varieties  for  West 
Virginia  conditions.  A  special  school  exhibit  showing  wheat  products,  with 
booklets  explaining  every  step  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  and  its  by-products, 
may  be  secured  by  writing  the  Washburn-Crosby  Co.,  or  The  Pillsbury  Co., 
both  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.  (See  also  Farmers’  Bulletin  640.) 

Chapter  6.  Oats.  An  oats  survey  and  a  map  showing  the  distribution  of 
the  crop,  as  suggested  for  corn  and  wheat,  should  be  made  in  connection  with 
the  oats  study.  Oats  is  profitable  in  West  Virginia  because  of  its  place  in  the 
crop  rotation,  not  because  of  its  large  yields.  “Crop  Rotation  and  Fertility,” 
pp.  327-330,  should  be  studied  as  part  of  these  lessons  on  oats. 

Chapter  8.  The  Potato.  In  communities  where  Potato  Club  work  is 
being  carried  out  siiccessfully  the  record  books  of  the  best  projects  may  be  used 
as  a  basis  for  class  discussion.  Pupils  should  bring  half-peck  samples  of  potatoes 
to  the  school  house  for  a  study  of  grades  and  varieties.  They  should  learn  to 
identify  Irish  Cobbler,  Carman  No.  3,  Early  Rose,  Rural  New  V^orker,  and 
other  common  varieties  in  the  community. 

Note — First  of  November  is  a  good  time  to  hold  a  school  agricultural  exhibit. 
Instructions  on  school  and  agricultural  club  exhibits  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Director  of  Extension,  Morgantown,  W.  Va.  (See  also  Farmers’  Bulletin  No. 
•870,  “The  Community  Fair.”) 

Chapters  11-14.  Forage  Crops,  Clovers,  Alfalfa,  and  other  Legumes. 

When  is  a  crop  a  forage  crop  and  when  is  it  not?  Forage  crops  are  essential  in 
feeding  all  classes  of  live  stock.  Pupils  should  be  able  to  explain  the  difference 
between  forage  crops  and  grain  crops  as  feeds,  and  to  distinguish  between  legumin¬ 
ous  crops  and  non-leguminous  crops.  They  should  learn  to  identify  the  common 
forage  crops  by  their  leaves,  blossoms  and  seed.  Legumes  are  of  special  import¬ 
ance  because  of  their  relation  to  nitrogen.  Cultures  of  bacteria  for  a  demon¬ 
stration  of  soil  inoculation  may  be  obtained  through  the  County  Agricultural 
Agent.  With  few  exceptions  our  cultivated  legumes  are  very  sensitive  to  sour 
soil  conditions  and  practically  all  West  Virginia  soils  require  liming  before  these 
crops  grow  satisfactorily.  Over  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  soils  analyzed  by 
the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  are  acid  (see  pages  325-326,  “The  Use  of 
Lime  on  Soils”) .  If  soybeans  or  cowpeas  are  grown  in  the  community  the  county 
agricultural  agent  should  be  asked  to  explain  to  the  class  their  relative  merits 
and  why  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  recommends  Wilson  soybeans  for 
our  state. 

Chapter  15.  Meadows  and  Pastures.  To  emphasize  the  local  importance 
of  the  study  of  meadow  and  pasture  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
“Topics  for  Investigation”  suggested  by  the  authors.  This  important  phase 
of  West  Virginia  farming  does  not  receive  the  attention  which  it  merits.  The 


122 


requirements  for  meadows  should  be  compared  with  requirements  for  pastures, 
special  attention  being  given  to  seeding  and  re-seeding. 

Part  II. 

§ 

Chapter  XVI.  The  Vegetable  Garden.  The  vegetable  garden  offers  the 
best  opportunity  for  putting  into  practice  the  things  studied  in  the  class  room. 
Every  pupil  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  who  is  not  carrying  out  some  other 
Qub  project  should  be  required  to  plant  and  cultivate  a  garden  as  a  part  of  his 
course.  Circular  No.  117,  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Morgantown, 
W.  Va.,  and  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  936,  should  supplement  the  material  in  this 
chapter. 

Chapter  XVII.  Fruits  and  Nuts.  Only  those  fruits  which  are  grown  in 
West  Virginia  should  be  studied.  Our  climatic,  soil  and  market  conditions 
are  especially  favorable  to  the  production  of  pome,  stone  and  small.  Special 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  splendid  local  market  for  fruits  and  berries  in 
our  mining  and  manufacturing  communities.  No  other  crop  grown  in  West 
Virginia  yields  larger  returns  from  a  small  area  well  tilled  than  does  the  straw- 
berr>\  The  Nursery  Inspection  Law  and  the  Apple  Packing  Law  are  good  sub¬ 
jects  fot  special  reports  by  pupils. 

Chapter  XVIII.  The  Tomato.  Interest  in  tomato  study  may  be  stimu¬ 
lated  by  a  discussion  of  Tomato  Club  work  in  the  district  and  throughout  the 
state,  also  by  showing  the  class  how  to  make  cream  of  tomato  soup  for  the  school 
lunch.  Suggestions  for  making  a  district  survey  of  tomatoes,  peppers, and  egg¬ 
plants;  organizing  a  tomato  club;  holding  community  exhibits,  and  other 
valuable  supplementary  material  for  this  chapter  are  given  in  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  392,  Club  Instruction  Leaflets  and  Extension  Depart¬ 
ment  Circular  136,  “Canning  Tomatoes,”  may  be  assigned  to  pupils  for  special 
reports. 

Chapter  XIX.  Garden  and  Orchard  Sprays.  Actual  practice  in  the 
preparation  and  application  of  Bordeaux  ^Mixture,  Lime  Sulphur  and  Kerosene 
Emulsion,  should  be  made  the  basis  of  class  work.  Pupils  should  prepare  a  list 
of  the  plant  diseases  and  insect  pests  common  in  the  community,  indicating 
in  each  case  the  principal  method  of  control. 

Chapter  XX.  Home  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables.  Full  utiliza¬ 
tion  and  conserv^ation  of  food  is  just  as  important  as  large  food  production. 
Every  can  of  fruits  and  vegetables  put  up  at  home  not  only  saves  the  cost  of 
transportation  but  leaves  that  much  more  of  the  commercial  supply  of  canned 
goods  for  use  overseas.  Pupils  should  be  shown  how  to  make  a  simple  home 
canner. 

Note.  Many  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  preserved  by  drying. 
Instructions  for  making  drying  racks  and  full  directions  for  drying  fruits  and 
vegetables  may  be  obtained  from  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department, 
Morgantown,  W.  Va. 


Part  III. 

Chapter  XXL  Nature  of  Soil.  A  mud  ball  exposed  to  a  freezing  tempera¬ 
ture  illustrates  what  is  mean  by  “rock  weathering.”  A  plowed  field  on  a  cold, 
frosty  morning  is  another  example.  West  Virginia  soils  as  a  rule  are  lacking  in 
humus.  Soil  survey  maps  have  been  prepared  and  distributed  by  the  U.  S. 


Bureau  of  Soils.  May  be  secured  by  writing  the  Senator  or  Congressman  from 
the  district  for  which  they  are  desired. 

Chapter  XXII.  Soil  Fertility  and  Plant  Growth.  A  comparison  of 
good  with  poor  farms  in  the  community  focuses  the  pupils’  attention  upon 
the  factors  which  determine  yield.  Further  interest  is  aroused  by  letting  the 
class  handle  samples  of  commercial  fertilizers  which  may  be  secured  from  the 
nearest  dealer  or  through  the  County  Agent.  The  chief  source  of  loss  of  soil 
fertility  should  be  considered  and  special  emphasis  given  to  conservation  of  plant 
food  through  proper  handling  of  stable  manures.  Legumes  have  a  special  value 
as  green  manure  crops.  If  there  is  a  lime  kiln  in  the  community  this  should  be 
visited  by  the  class.  References,  Farmers’  Bulletin  257. 

Chapter  XXIII.  Soil  Moisture.  To  get  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  relation 
of  texture  to  the  movement  of  water  in  the  soil  the  simple  exercise  described  on 
p.  333  (capillarity)  should  be  set  up  by  the  class.  Samples  of  different  kinds  of 
soil  may  be  taken  direct  from  the  field  and  dried  on  the  stove  to  show  the  differ¬ 
ence  in  water  holding  capacity.  Similar  soils  taken  from  different  fields  may  be 
dried  to  show  the  effect  of  cultivation  on  soil  moisture. 

Chapter  I.  Com.  (pp.  9-18).  Seed  germination  tests  and  the  study  of 
soil  preparation  and  cultivation  should  be  made  in  early  spring.  In  some  schools 
all  the  seed  corn  planted  in  the  district  is  tested  by  the  agriculture  class. 

Part  IV. 

(Only  swine  and  poultry  should  be  studied  the  first  year.) 

Chapter  XXVII.  Swine.  Although  West  Virginia  is  well  adapted  to  hog 
raising  we  produce  only  one-half  the  pork  consumed  in  this  state.  A  district 
survey,  records  of  Pig  Qub  work,  and  Pig  Club  Instructions  leaflets  should  be 
made  the  basis  of  this  study  in  the  first  year. 

Chapter  XXIX.  Poultry.  The  district  survey.  Club  records  and  Poultry 
Club  instruction  leaflets  should  be  used  as  directed  for  the  study  of  poultry. 
Special  topics  for  the  first  year  are  hatching,  brooding,  and  feeding  chicks; 
handling  eggs;  making  an  egg  candler  and  keeping  an  egg  record;  poultry  dis¬ 
eases,  and  two  or  three  of  the  most  common  breeds  found  in  the  community; 
leaving  the  general  study  of  types  and  breeds,  management  of  the  flock,  marketing 
poultry  and  eggs,  and  poultry  houses  until  the  second  year.  Bulletin  144,  of  the 
West  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  shows  the  average  farm  value  of  poultry  by 
counties.  Pupils  should  compare  their  county  with  other  Counties. 

Note.  A  report  on  the  seed  corn  tested  by  the  class  should  be  made  at  a 
community  meeting  or  through  the  county  paper. 

EIGHTH  GRADE  (SECOND  YEAR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL). 

Part  IV  and  V. 

Agriculture  in  the  second  year  should  be  correlated  with  and  based  upon  actual 
farm  problems  which  at  this  time  or  at  some  previous  time  have  engaged  the 
pupils’  earnest  attention  and  in  which  he  has  a  strong  personal  interest.  The 
home  project  provides  such  a  problem.  It  requires  individual  effort  and  thought 
and  affords  the  best  means  of  forming  in  the  pupils’  life  the  habit  of  doing  rather 
than  talking  about  doing  things  on  the  farm. 

One  or  more  definite  projects  in  agriculture  should  therefore  be  required  as  a 


124 


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part  of  the  second  years’  work.  These  projects  should  be  selected  on  the  basis 
of  dominant  agricultural  interests  in  the  community  and  may  be  in  either  crop 
or  animal  production,  or  both,  thus  tying  the  practical  work  up  closely  with 
either  the  first  or  second  years’  class  room  instruction. 

Any  of  the  first  year  projects  used  by  members  of  Boys’  and  Girls’  Agricultural 
Clubs  in  this  state — growing  an  acre  of  corn,  one-eighth  acre  of  potatoes,  hatching 
three  settings  of  eggs  and  raising  the  chicks,  raising  a  pig  or  lamb — are  suitable 
projects  for  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils.  Full  instructions  for  carrying 
out  these  projects,  record  forms  and  directions  for  making  an  agricultural  booklet 
may  be  secured  from  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department  at  Morgantown. 

Simple  exercises  in  farm  handicraft,  adapted  to  rural  schools  with  little  more 
than  a  saw,  square,  hammer  and  a  home-made  bench  as  mechanical  equip¬ 
ment,  to  supplement  both  project  and  class-room  work,  are  fully  outlined  in 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  527.  Exercises  in  cooking  pro¬ 
ducts  from  the  pupils’  project  may  be  obtained  from  the  Agricultural  Extension 
Department. 

After  a  brief  review  of  timely  phases  of  the  first  years’  work  in  agriculture, 
including  especially  the  lessons  on  the  selection  and  storing  of  seed,  during  which 
the  class  makes  field  selections  of  seed  for  the  project  work  next  season,  the 
class-work  may  follow  the  order  of  Chapters  W  and  V  of  the  textbook.  As 
in  the  previous  year  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  suggestions  under 
the  title  “Topics  for  Investigation.’’  This  is  a  device  employed  by  the  authors 
primarily  as  a  means  of  getting  local  applications  of  the  methods  and  principles 
set  forth  in  the  text. 

It  is  desirable  that  pupils  become  familiar  with  the  sources  of  the  Stale  and 
Federal  publications  designed  to  help  the  farmer  and  with  the  work  of  both 
State  and  Federal  institutions  established  and  maintained  for  the  promotion  of 
agriculture.  Several  lessons  should  be  dwoted  to  each  of  the  following  subjects: 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  divided  into  many  bureaus  and  department. 

It  may  be  best  for  the  children  to  think  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  the 
head.  Requests  addressed  to  him  will  generally  secure  any  publications  needed. 
It  is  best  when  requesting  a  bulletin  to  state  whether  it  is  a  “Farmers’  Bulletin’’ 
or  “U.  S.  Dept.’’  Bulletin  and  giv'c  the  number.  A  little  leaflet  known  as  the 
“Monthly  List  of  Publication.^’’  should  come  to  your  school.  A  postal  card 
will  get  it. 

The  College  of  Agriculture.  It  is  the  chief  business  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  to  discover  new  truths  about  agriculture. 

The  Agricultural  Extension  Department  distributes  these  truths  among  the 
farm  folks.  The  College  of  Agriculture,  of  which  the  Experiment  Station  and 
Extension  Department  are  a  part,  teaches  the  science  of  agriculture. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

The  textbook  for  this  year,  Davison’s  Health  Lessons,  Book  H,  contains 
many  suggestions  for  outside  reading  and  special  exercises  that  should  be  carried 
out  by  the  teacher.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  teacher  be  familiar  with  some 
more  comprehensive  texts  on  the  subject.  IVIuch  use  should  be  made  of  Health 
Bulletins  that  may  be  secured  from  The  State  Department  of  Health,  Charleston, 
and  The  Health  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Government,  and  from  many  other  sources. 

Exercises  requiring  attention  and  alertness  besides  strength  and  endurance 
should  be  used. 

1.  Boys — ^Wrestling,  boxing,  fencing,  baseball,  football,  etc.  Exercises  to 
develop  manly  courage  and  daring,  concentration  of  attention,  and  the  spirit 
of  co-operation.  Some  gymnastics  and  apparatus  work.  Since,  psychologically, 
boys  are  ready  for  strenuous  effort  before  they  are  strong  enough  for  it,  teachers 
must  see  that  physical  exercise  is  not  overdone. 

2.  Girls — Gymnastics,  light  apparatus  work,  volley-ball,  indoor  baseball, 
basket-ball  and  folk  games.  Exercises  to  develop  fairness,  self-confidence,  co¬ 
operation  and  womanliness.  Both  sexes  should  have  acquired  habits  of  “safety 
first”  and  knowledge  of  simple  first  aids  to  the  injured  by  end  of  year. 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

We  now  come  to  a  new  way  of  looking  at  our  history.  We  have  been  fixing 
our  attention  upon  the  great  men  as  the  center  and  have  looked  upon  events 
as  swinging  around  them.  But  now  we  change  our  viewpoint,  and  events,  not 
the  actors,  are  the  center  of  study.  It  is  “the  story  of  the  event”  and  not  merely 
the  story  of  the  man.  When  the  event  is  important  the  pupil  should  strive  to 
make  a  “word  picture”  of  it,  so  that  it  will  ap‘peal  to  the  imagination.  The 
pupil  who  does  not  picture  the  event  he  studies  does  hot  get  it.  The  teacher 
should  strive  to  set  much  of  the  material  of  history  before  the  pupils  as  problems. 
Questions  such  as  those  found  in  the  Appendix,  and  which  the  teacher  can  easily 
supplement  as  the  occasion  arises  in  her  class,  will  help  to  present  such  problems. 

Textbook:  Mace’s  School  History,  pp.  1-295,  including  the  periods  of  Dis¬ 
covery  and  Expansion,  Colonization,  Revolution  and  National  Growth. 

Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

The  work  follows  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  seventh  grade.  The 
teacher  should  use  more  the  problem  method  and  search  for  causes  and  effects. 
As  the  pupils  get  forward  in  the  subject  more  and  more,  they  should  be  taught 
to  go  back  and  pick  up  the  threads  of  the  subject  and  trace  them  to  the  point 
reached  in  the  lesson.  In  this  way  the  pupil  is  reviewing  by  constantly  getting 
a  new  view  of  the  subject. 

Textbook:  Mace’s  School  History,  pp.  295-477,  including  the  periods  of 
Sectional  Dispute  and  War,  and  the  Consolidation  and  Expansion. 


CIVICS. 


Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Both  the  subject  matter  and  the  method  of  teaching  civics  have  changed. 
There  is  less  of  text-book  study  of  the  machinery  of  government,  and  more  of 
the  civic  duties  of  children  and  of  youth,  in  the  community  life.  This  may  be 
seen  in  the  table  of  contents  of  Dunn’s  Community  and  the  Citizen;  there  are 
nineteen  chapters  given  to  civics,  and  bnt  six  chapters  to  civil  government. 

The  teacher  should  study  the  Introduction  for  Teachers  in  the  text,  with 
care.  The  point  of  view  and  the  method  are  well  presented  in  the  introduction. 
The  aim  to  develop  in  the  pupil  knowledge  that  will  result  in  interest,  motive, 
co-operation,  good  judgment,  and  civic  initiative,  is  well  stated  and  illustrated 
in  this  part  of  the  text.  The  six  questions  on  page  XII  should  be  kept  in  mind, 
and  direct  the  year’s  work. 

In  chapters  1-4,  have  the  pupils  get  clear  notions  of  the  growth  and  develop¬ 
ment  of  a  community.  Use  the  questions  and  suggestions  at  the  end  of  each 
chapter  for  investigations.  Do  not  ask  for  definitions,  but  for  descriptions, 
illustrations,  causes,  growth  in  community.  Have  pupils  study,  bring  to  class, 
and  discuss  their  own  community  growth.  Start  right  the  first  day.  These  four 
chapters  will  require  about  four  lessons. 

Two  lessons  on  chapters  five  and  six  will  furnish  you  a  fine  opportunity  to 
interest  the  home  in  the  school  and  to  correlate  two  fundamental  institutions 
of  society. 

Chapters  seven  and  eight  will  require  four  or  five  lessons.  Have  some  of 
the  references  read  and  discussed  in  class.  Debate  in  class  one  or  more  of  the 
questions  on  page  46.  The  land  is  our  best  and  richest  heritage.  Have  the 
pupils  see  and  appreciate  their  dependance  upon  the  land.  Its  equitable  dis¬ 
tribution  among  the  people,  and  its  proper  use  and  care  determine  local  and 
national  welfare. 

Chapters  nine  to  eighteen  will  require  25  to  30  lessons,  or  more.  If  the  sub¬ 
jects  are  well  developed  by  community  study  and  reference  reading,  the  whole 
community  may  be  aroused  to  a  newer  sense  of  civic  duty  and  civic  pride.  Make 
the  study  of  these  chapters  result  in  the  improvement  of  the  families,  school, 
churches,  society  of  your  locality;  failure  to  accomplish  these  things  in  your 
community  is  evidence  of  failure  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the 
class. 

These  ten  chapters  are  typical  of  the  difference  between  civics  and  civil  gov¬ 
ernment.  Each  chapter  topic  may  be  studied  without  a  textbook.  The  pupils 
may  study  topics  at  first  hand  in  their  locality  and  the  knowledge  acquired  put 
to  use.  These  are  the  tests  of  the  education  value  of  a  subject.  Gan  the  sub¬ 
ject  be  studied  at  first  hand,  not  simply  read  about,  and  can  the  knowledge 
developed  be  used  by  the  pupils  while  in  school?  Education  is  life. 

For  example,  chapter  15  on  education,  furnishes  an  opportunity  to  study  the 
school  the  pupils  are  attending,  to  develop  a  proper  school  spirit,  to  secure  better 
school  government,  to  stimulate  more  work,  and  to  correlate  again  the  home, 
community  and  school.  In  this  chapter,  as  in  other  chapters,  make  large  and 
intelligent  use  of  the  questions,  topics  and  references  at  the  end.  Secure  some 


127 


of  the  reference  material  for  yourself,  and  loan  it  to  the  pupils  to  read  and  use 
in  class. 

The  remaining  chapters  of  the  text,  19  to  25,  should  have  20  to  25  or  more 
lessons.  Take  time  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  purpose  of  ^government.  Every 
opportunity  should  be  used  to  get  the  pupils  to  see  and  appreciate  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  free  government.  Have  them  understand  that  government  is  a  human 
institution  de\’ised  to  provide  for  human  welfare. 

A  human  institution  does  not  reach  perfection;  conditions  change;  the  human 
race  comes  to  have  more  knowledge.  These  things  call  for  changes  in  govern¬ 
ment  as  well  as  in  farming,  manufacturing,  etc.  Have  the  pupils  see  that  change 
in  government  is  in  the  direction  of  the  expressed  will  of  the  governed. 

Study  the  local  government  in  reference  to  the  school,  the  streets,  the  roads; 
in  like  manner  study  the  general  government  at  every  point,  where  the  pupils 
come  in  contact  with  it,  as  postal  system,  taxation,  etc. 

The  Constitution  may  be  used  as  reading  material.  Pupils  should  not  be 
required  to  memorize  it.  Read  it  and  study  it  in  class  with  the  books  open. 
There  should  probably  be  no  assigned  work  on  it  in  the  elementary  school. 

Civics  as  a  regular  subject  should  be  taught  in  eighth  grade. 

Textbook:  Dunn’s — ^The  Community  and  the  Citizen  with  West  Virginia 
Supplement. 


DRAWING. 


Seventh  Grade  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Representation:  Continue  practice  in  outline  drawing,  strengthening  the 
work  with  accented  lines  where  necessary-.  Form  and  proportion  must  be  con¬ 
tinually  kept  in  mind. 

Construction:  Without  tools,  objects  of  the  same  construction  as  in  grade 
six,  or  articles  involving  the  circle,  such  as  lamp  and  candle  shades,  may  be 
made.  These  may  be  constructed  of  hea\'y  paper,  or  card  board  with  the  deccn 
ration  cut  out  and  lined  with  thin  material  or  oiled  paper. 

The  introduction  of  tools,  the  compass,  tee-square,  and  triangles  should  be 
made  here,  and  the  lines  of  the  working  drawing  well  understood. 

Designs:  Make  a  neutral  scale  with  about  nine  steps  from  black  to  white. 
These  will  be  named  white,  high-light,  light,  low-light,  middle-tone,  high-dark, 
dark,  low-dark,  black.  In  making  your  decorations,  select  harmonious  tones 
from  this  scale.  Use  both  neutral  washes  and  monochrome. 

Make  flower  composition  in  silhouette.  Make  studies  of  vases  and  bowls 
arranged  in  circular  or  rectangular  frame  and  painted  in  flat  washes  of  gray, 
or  monochrome.  These  arrangements  can  be  adapted  in  panels  and  borders 
to  the  candle  shades. 

References:  Nature  Work — (Pages 2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  32,  46,  50);  Design — 
(Pages  17,  21,  23,  25,  30,  48,  52);  Object  Drawing — (Pages  34,  36,  38,  40,  42); 
Pose  Drawing — (Page  44);  Color — (Pages  54,  55). 

Eighth  Grade  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 

Representation:  If  the  pupils  in  this  grade  have  had  suflicient  experience 
in  the  principles  planned  for  the  lower  grades,  they  may  be  given  more  free¬ 
dom  and  variety.  Plants  may  be  studied  for  their  beauty  of  line  and  form, 
with  close  observ’ation  and  rendering  of  color  and  texture. 

Construction:  Continue  the  work  of  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  Become 
more  familiar  with  tools  and  more  accurate  in  execution.  Forms  for  potter>" 
and  basketr>'  or  anything  to  be  made  in  the  manual  training  shop  are  good. 

The  book-end  and  paper  knife  offer  an  opportunity  for  individuality. 

Interior  decoration  in  connection  with  design  may  be  studied  with  much 
profit,  in  the  eighth  grade. 

References:  Nature  Work — (Pages  2,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  48);  Design — (Pages 
17,  19,  21,  23,  25,  27,  30,  .32,  50,  52);  Geometric  and  Perspective  Drawing — 
(Pages  .34,  36,  38,  40,  42,  44);  Pose — (Page  46);  Color — (Pages  27,  30,  54,  55). 


MUSIC. 


Seventh,  Eighth  and  Ninth  Grades  (Junior  High  School). 

The  teaching  staff  and  other  local  conditions  will  determine  the  time  to  be 
given  to  the  important  subject  of  Music  in  the  Junior  High  School.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  brief  discussion  gives  the  aim  and  spirit  of  music  work  in  these  grades. 

The  purpose  of  a  course  in  music  is  “to  cultivate  a  love  and  appreciation  of 
music,  to  develop  ability  to  listen  intelligently,  and  to  educate  the  musical 
sense  which  exists  in  eveiy  child,”  to  develop  the  power  to  read  music  readily 
at  sight,  to  sing  with  feeling  and  expression,  and  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  good 
music  by  the  best  composers.  In  scope  it  should  include  “chorus  work,  song 
interpretation  and  a  working  knowledge  of  the  subject.”  Whenever  it  is  possible 
music  appreciation  should  be  cultivated  through  the  use  of  victrolas  or  similar 
instruments.  Several  manufacturers  of  such  instruments  have  carefully  pre¬ 
pared  well  selected  records  designed  to  be  used  in  this  way.  An  acquaintance 
with  forms  of  music  otherwise  not  easily  available,  and  an  appreciation  of  them, 
can  thus  be  cultivated. 

Music  cannot  reach  its  proper  efficiency  in  the  school  unless  the  children 
learn  to  read  it.  In  fact,  “sight  singing  is  the  technique  of  public  school  music.” 
Children  should  be  taught  to  read  music  as  skillfully  as  they  read  language. 
The  development  of  such  ability  tends  to  render  the  pupil  independent  of  the 
teacher  and  thus  facilitates  rather  than  retards  his  musical  development.  It 
is  true  that  the  child’s  music  sense  is  first  developed  by  the  singing  of  songs 
learned  by  imitation,  but  where  symbols  are  introduced  there  should  be  no 
doubt  left  in  the  child’s  mind  of  their  significance.  Music  reading  is  not,  indeed, 
the  ultimate  aim  of  school  music,  but  it  is  a  means  of  hastening  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  that  aim.  The  teaching  of  music  reading  holds  the  same  relation  to 
music  education  as  the  teaching  of  language  holds  to  general  education. 

In  teaching  children  to  read  music,  the  practice  of  singing  songs  directly  from 
the  notation  is  the  best  kind  of  drill  for  both  ear  and  eye  that  can  be  given. 
In  school  singing,  the  child’s  first  musical  experience  should  be  with  the  song, 
His  study  of  music  should  be  based  on  the  song,  the  song  should  be  the  object 
of  his  musical  training.  While  “special”  cultivation  of  the  voice  is  not  the 
aim  of  public  school  music,  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  child’s  voice 
and  stimulate  its  growth  naturally.  Loud,  harsh,  coarse  tones;  strained  throat 
muscles;  low  pitch  in  primary  grades;  careless  assignment  of  parts  in  grammar 
grades  should  never  exist.” 

At  the  beginning  of  the  music  period  it  is  well  to  have  a  brief  breathing  exer¬ 
cise  or  some  physical  exercise  with  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

The  adopted  texts  are  the  Congdon  Music  Readers  and  the  Dann  Music 
Readers.  Both  or  either  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  excellent  song  material. 

Strive  in  your  school  room  for  the  joy  that  comes  with  the  love  of  music- 

Textbook:  Congdon  Music  Readers  and  Dann’s  Music  Course. 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  IN  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


Note:  In  this  discussion,  suggestions  and  outlines  are  given  for  seventh, 
eighth  and  ninth  years.  Local  conditions  may  require  some  changes  and  adapta¬ 
tions. 

Household  arts  may  be  defined  as  a  study  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter;  their 
relation  to  the  individual  as  expressed  in  the  diet,  the  clothing,  the  furnishing 
and  the  administration  of  the  home;  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the  family 
and  society  as  expressed  in  personal  and  public  hygiene,  by  means  of  sanitation. 

In  the  public  school  the  aim  is  to  select  from  the  vast  body  of  rather  loosely 
organized  subject  matter  those  principles  which  are  essential  to  enable  the  stu¬ 
dent  to  know  how  to  select,  make,  and  care  for  the  clothing;  how  to  arrange, 
keep  clean  and  in  order  the  kitchen,  the  dining  room,  and  bed  room,  how  to 
select,  prepare  and  ser\'e  food,  and  how  to  keep  well  and  strong. 

These  principles  should  be  of  sufficient  thought  content  to  have  a  place  in  the 
curriculum,  and  their  value  should  be  judged  by  the  need  of  the  girls  in  terms 
of  their  home  conditions.  The  purpose  should  be  to  enable  the  pupils  to  acquire 
a  small  mass  of  knowledge  capable  of  immediate  application,  i.  e.,  to  establish 
a  few  principles  by  a  large  number  of  illustrations  rather  than  a  mass  of  abstract 
classification  to  be  stored  away  for  some  future  use. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  to  subdivide  the  main  topics  of  food  and  clothing, 
into  such  subjects  as  laundering,  marketing,  cleaning,  textiles  and  household 
management.  Laundering  should  be  taught  when  the  dish  towels  need  wash¬ 
ing,  when  the  table-linen  is  to  be  used,  when  the  article  made  in  sewing  is  fin¬ 
ished.  Table  service  and  etiquette  should  be  taught  when  the  dish  is  ready  to 
be  eaten,  or  when  a  meal  is  to  be  serv'ed,  marketing  when  the  food  is  to  be  cooked. 
The  pupil  should  be  taught  how  to  clean  the  table,  the  drawer,  or  refrigerator, 
when  they  need  it.  A  study  of  textiles  should  be  made  when  the  material  needs 
to  be  selected.  For  example,  how  to  tell  linen  toweling  should  be  taught  when 
hemming  a  dish  towel,  and  the  difference  between  cotton  and  linen  buck,  when 
making  a  guest  towel. 


Credit. 

The  same  amount  of  credit  should  be  given  to  cooking  and  sewing  as  to  any 
other  grade  or  high  school  subject.  A  unit  of  credit  means  in  these  subjects  the 
same  as  in  a  science  subject. 


Textbooks. 

(See  adopted  textbooks  in  “Outline  of  Subjects  by  Grades.”) 

While  there  is  no  entirely  satisfactory  text  on  the  market  a  text  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  during  the  study  period  to  learn  methods  of  manu¬ 
facture,  table  service,  and  manufacture  of  textiles. 

Under  present  war  conditions  the  pupils  should  make  their  own  recipe  books 
from  recipes  given  by  teacher  rather  than  to  try  to  modify  recipes  in  the  text. 
For  this  reason  the  school  text  should  be  the  property  of  the  school. 


13,1 


List  of  Reference  Books  in  Sewing  For  Public  Schools. 

EEEMENTARY. 

1.  Constructive  Sewing — Fuller . Industrial  Book  &  Equipment  Co.,  Indianapo  lis,  Ind, 

2.  Food  and  Clothing — Osborne . Row,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Ill. 

3.  Clothing  and  Health — Kinne  &  Cooley . Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

HIGH  SCHOOL. 

A.  Shelter  and  Clothing — Kinne  &  Cooley . Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

B.  The  Home  and  the  Family — Kinne  &  Cooley . Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

C.  A  Sewing  Course — Wooknan. 


List  of  Reference  Books  For  Cooking  in  the  Public  Schools. 

ELEMENTARY. 

1.  Austin’s  Domestic  Science  Book,  Books  I  and  II . Lyons  and  Carnahan,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

2.  Food  and  Clothing — Lena  Osborne . Row  Peterson  and  Co.,  Chicago,  Ill. 

3.  Basic  Principles  of  Domestic  Science . Industrial  Book  and  Equipment  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind 

HIGH  SCHOOL. 

1.  Domestic  Science  Principles  and  Application — Bailey . Webb  Publishing  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Min  n. 

2.  The  Textbook  of  Cookery— Greer . Allyn  and  Bacon,  New  York,  N.Y. 


FOOD  COURSES. 


The  study  of  foods  in  public  schools  should  include  knowledge  of  what  is 
needed  to  learn  how  to  select  what  to  cook;  how  to  cook  it;  how  to  combine  it 
with  other  foods  in  a  meal;  and  how  to  serve  the  meal  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  time,  energy,  labor,  and  money. 

The  laboratory  work  should  precede  or  parallel  that  of  the  classroom.  Those 
principles  should  be  taught  which  the  pupil  needs  in  order  to  understand  why 
certain  processes  are  essential  in  the  preparation  of  the  dish — that  is,  abstract 
classification  belongs  to  the  college  and  not  the  public  school.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  study  of  foods  which  has  as  its  aim  mere  mechanical  skill,  learning  how 
to  make  a  good  tasting  dish  by  following  the  directions  of  the  recipe,  has  no 
place  in  an  educational  system. 

The  outlines  presented  include  the  types  of  dishes  necessary  to  illustrate 
the  principles  of  cooking  the  different  foods.  In  order  to  establish  these  prin¬ 
ciples,  it  is  necessary  to  cook  more  than  one  dish  as  an  illustration.  That  is, 
in  teaching  the  principles  of  cooking  cereal,  it  is  necessary  to  teach  how  to  cook 
a  raw  cereal  and  a  partly  cooked  cereal,  but  the  principle  of  the  cooking  starch 
is  not  established  until  the  pupil  has  cooked  starchy  vegetables  and  starchy 
powders. 

Since  the  dominant  idea  is  the  meal  there  should  be  short  recurring  sequences 
rather  than  to  teach  one  after  the  other  all  dishes  necessary  to  establish  a  type. 
The  time  of  year  and  locality  will  influence  the  dishes  chosen.  For  instance, 
the  type  “flavor  vegetables”  cannot  be  established  until  fall,  winter  and  early 
summer  vegetables  have  been  cooked. 

The  work  should  be  gradually  increased  in  complexity  of  manipulation  and 
thought  content  as  pupils  develop  skill. 

The  work  of  the  second  year  involves  the  same  principles  as  that  of  the  first. 
The  types  established  in  the  first  year  are  reviewed  by  using  more  complicated 
processes.  In  the  first  year,  fruits  were  cooked,  in  the  second  year,  they  should 
be  canned.  Plain  vegetables  are  cooked  in  the  first  year,  and  in  the  second 
year,  they  should  be  combined  with  other  food  material. 


SEWING  COURSES. 


The  study  of  clothing  includes  a  knowledge  of  what  is  needed  learn  how  to 
select  clothing;  how  to  make  clothing,  how  to  keep  it  in  repair;  how  to  launder 
clothing. 

In  learning  to  sew  the  first  article  should  be  one  which  can  be  finished  in  a 
short  time  so  that  the  pupil  does  not  grow  discouraged  and  lose  interest. 

The  material  to  be  used  for  each  article  should  be  studied  before  purchase 
to  be  sure  that  it  is  appropriate  for  the  purpose  as  to  weave,  finish  and  color, 
that  it  has  good  wearing  qualities,  will  launder  well  and  not  muss  easily. 

There  is  no  place  for  making  of  models  in  the  sewing  courses.  The  stitch  may 
be  practiced  a  few  times  on  a  piece  of  cloth  but  skill  is  acquired  in  making  the 
article. 

The  note  book  is  of  value  to  record  samples  of  textiles  studied  and  stitches 
and  finishes  used  for  specific  purposes. 

Pupils  should  learn  to  darn  stockings  and  repair  the  clothing.  "^1 

Under  present  conditions  as  little  new  material  as  possible  should  be  bought. 
No  bit  of  cloth  should  be  thrown  away. 

The  finishes  for  the  underclothing  should  be  neat,  simple  and  easily  laundered. 
The  use  of  lace  and  elaborate  trimming  should  be  discouraged.  The  material 
for  the  dress  should  be  chosen  from  cloth  with  a  firm  weave  and  smooth  finish 
so  that  it  will  not  ravel  easily,  or  sag.  If  the  teacher  plans  the  work  to  suit 
the  inexperience  of  the  pupil  and  gives  clear  directions,  there  is  little  need  for 
ripping.  Since  this  is  the  time  when  the  pupil  is  forming  her  notions  of  what 
is  good  in  dress  the  design  should  be  simple  so  that  it  can  be  finished  in  a  neat 
manner.  The  mistake  is  too  often  made  of  permitting  the  pupil  to  undertake  a 
very  complicated  problem  such  as  a  tailored  suit  or  lingerie  dress  which  is  beyond 
her  skill  and  so  establishes  careless  habits  in  sewing  with  shoddy  finishes. 

The  Red  Cross  work  forms  a  part  of  the  years’  work  but  in  the  majority  of 
programs  it  should  not  exceed  one-third  of  the  years’  work.  It  should  form  a 
part  of  the  course  in  the  development  of  the  uses  for  the  different  stitches  and 
finishes  on  different  rhaterials. 


DIVISION  OF  TIME. 


The  course  as  outlined  is  planned  to  give  first  year  sewing  in  the  seventh 
grade  and  first  year  cooking  in  the  eighth  grade.  It  is  possible,  however,  and 
under  some  conditions  it  may  be  desirable  to  give  a  semester  of  sewing  and  then 
a  semester  of  cooking  in  the  one  year. 


Seventh  Grade  Sewing  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 


First  Semester. 

Towel  for  the  cooking  outfit — ; 

Holder 

Sewing  apron 

Christmas  article 

Pincushion 

Red  Cross  work 

Binders 

Hem  diapers. 

Second  Semester. 

Bag 

Cooking  apron 
Red  Cross  work 
Booties 

Knitting.  (Wash  clothes  and 


about  2 
about  2 
about  5 
about  2 
about  2 


about  4 
about  7 


blanket 


lessons. 

lessons. 

lessons. 

lessons. 

lessons. 


lessons. 

lessons. 


squares.) 


Ninth  Grade  Sewing  (Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 


First  Semester. 

Machine  lessons  about  3  lessons. 

Nightgown  about  6  lessons. 

Teddy  bear  about  8  lessons. 

Red  Cross  work 
Coats,  dresses,  waists,  knitting. 

Second  Semester. 

Petticoat  about  15  lessons. 

Graduating  dress  about  30  lessons. 

Red  Cross  work 
Shirts,  blanket,  cape  with  hood. 


/ 


134 


Seventh  Grade  Sewing  (First  Year  Junior  High  School). 
(One  Period  a  Week  Throughout  the  Year.) 

Article  Materul  Purpose 


Towel, 

(2  lessons) 


Holder. 

(2  lessons) 


Sewing  Apron, 
(5  lessons) 


Bag, 

(4  lessons) 


Pincushion, 
(2  lessons) 


Apron,  (Cooking) 
(7  lessons) 


%  yds.  toweling,  colored  floss,  cost, 
15  cents. 


14  yd-  doubled  face  flannelette. 

14  yd.  of  muslin,  or  longcloth,  flannel, 
etc. ,  or  scraps  of  material  from  home. 
1  yd.  of}4  inch  white  cotton  twill  tape. 
1  bolt  of  white  bias  binding,  ^  inch 
wide. 

%  yd.  barred  dimity. 

1  skein  colored  floss. 

1  snap  fastener. 

Approximate  cost,  25  cents. 


)4  yd.  linen  crash,  denim,  chambray, 
etc. 

2  yds.  cord. 

1  skein  colored  floss. 

Approximate  cost,  25  cents. 

Scraps  of  material  brought  from  home. 
Two  pieces  3H  x  3^  inches  for  lining. 

2  pieces  of  3^x3)^  inches  for  cover. 
Sawdust  for  filling. 


yds.  calico,  percale  or  linen. 

1  bolt  of  rick -rack  or  colored  scalloped 
edging. 

(5  or  6  yds.  in  bolt) 


To  straighten  ends  of  materials  by 
drawing  threads. 

a.  Turn  narrow  hem. 

b.  Use  of  gauge. 

c.  Accuracy  of  measurements. 

d.  Correct  method  of  pinning. 

e.  Basting  stitch. 

f.  Hemming  stitch. 

g.  Chain  stitch. 

To  bind  edges  of  circle. 

To  te^h  running  stitch  and  method 
of  joining  tape. 


To  make  apron  to  be  used  in  sewing. 
If  made  of  heavy  material,  apron 
may  be  used  as  a  traveler’s  aid,  or 
if  bound  with  tape,  a  clothes  pin  bag. 
To  teach: 

a.  Turning  of  hem. 

b.  Feather  stitching  or  some  simple 
decorative  stitch. 

c.  Running  stitch  and  stroling. 

d.  Putting  on  a  gathered  band. 

e.  Back  stitching. 

f.  Sewing  on  snap  fastener. 

To  learn  to  make  a  sewing  bag  to 
hold  sewing,  tools  and  materials. 
Different  uses  of  bag. 


To  make  a  pincushion  to  be  used  in 
sewing. 

Suggest  uses  of  different  kinds  of 
material  and  modifications  in 
design  of  pincushion. 

1.  To  make  a  kitchen  apron  to  be 
used  in  cooking  class. 

2.  To  teach: 

a.  Laying  a  curved  hem. 

b.  Use  of  and  sewing  on  of  rick 
rack,  and  scalloped  edging. 


Ninth  Grade  Sewing  (Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 

One  unitjto  be  done  either  in  five  periods  a  week  for  one  year  or  three  periods 
for  two  years. 


Machine  Lesson, 
(3  lessons) 


Nightgown, 
(6  lessons) 


Teddy  Bear, 
(8  lessons) 


3  yds.  muslin. 

1  bolt  scalloped  edging. 
Cost  approximate,  S0.75. 


Longcloth. 

Amount:  twice  length  from  shoulder 
to  knee  plus  4  inches. 

Face  eding  for  neck  and  armholes. 

1  bolt  of  inch  bias  binding. 

Buttons. 

Cost,  approximate,  $0.75. 


To  teach  care  and  use  of  sewing 
machine. 

Things  To  Be  Taught: 

a.  Relation  of  parts  of  machine. 

b.  Cleaning  and  oiling. 

c.  Plain  stitching.  Use  of  guides 
in  straight  stitching. 

To  draft  nightgown  pattern. 

To  teach: 

a.  Making  of  French  seams. 

b.  Laying  a  hem  that  curves  up  at 
sides. 

c.  Putting  in  of  gussets. 

d.  Neck  and  arm  finish. 

To  teach  good  taste  in  selecting  ma¬ 
terials  and  design  for  underwear. 
Use  and  modification  of  commercial 
pattern. 


135 


Article 

Material 

Purpose 

Petticoat, 

(15  lessons) 

3^  yds.  36  inch  muslin  or  longcloth. 

For  ruffle  %  yd.  extra  material. 
Embroidery  ruffle,  3  yards,  1  spool 
No.  70  thread. 

1.  Use  and  modification  of  com 
mercial  pattern, 

2.  Review  hemming,  making  French 
seams. 

3.  Making  a  placket. 

Dress, 

(30  lessons) 

(jalatea,  poplin  or  Devonshire  cloth. 
Cost,  not  over  $5.00. 

To  make  graduation  dress. 

Selection  of  suitable  design  and 
material. 

Use  of  commercial  patterns  and  modi 
fications. 

OUTLINE  FOR  COOKING  COURSES. 


It  is  not  desirable  to  divide  the  work  into  the  semester  as  so  much  depends 
upon  local  conditions  and  the  season  as  to  the  time  that  the  different  dishes  illus¬ 
trating  the  types  should  be  taught.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  teacher  should 
check  her  work  according  to  the  outline  given  for  types  to  be  certain  that  she 
has  omitted  none  and  that  she  does  not  over  emphasize  one  that  does  not  play 
an  important  part  in  the  diet. 

The  following  outlines  should  be  suggestive  in  planning  the  parts  of  the  lesson 
so  that  by  the  end  of  the  course  all  of  these  points  have  been  taught. 

Table  Service — First  Year. 

Tea  or  a  fruit  drink  to  pupils  and  teacher  (no  guests). 

Party  either  as  a  part  of  the  social  activities  of  the  school  for  holidays  or  to 
the  mothers. 

Service  for  individual  cover  at  the  desk. 

One  course  at  the  table — one  dish  with  little  manipulation  (second  cereal 
lesson). 

One  course  at  table — two  dishes — one  a  drink. 

A  meal  with  two  courses,  breakfast  or  supper. 

Second  Year  Cooking. 

Breakfast,  dinner,  supper,  picnic  lunch,  lunch  basket. 

Outline  for  Housekeeping. 

Cleaning,  kitchen  knives,  silver,  glassware,  tinware,  aluminum,  crockery,  sink, 
refrigerator,  stove,  garbage  can,  furniture  in  dining  room,  floor  in  kitchen  and 
dining  room,  woodwork. 


Outline  for  Laundry. 

Removal  of  stains,  kitchen  apron,  kitchen  towel,  table  linen.  Launder  the 
kitchen  and  dining  room  linen  at  the  time  that  it  is  needed.  Launder  sewing 
articles  as  finished. 


136 


Eighth  Grade  Cookery  (Second  Year  Junior  High  School). 
(One  period  a  week  throughout  the  year.) 


Text  for  pupil: 


Type 

Purpose 

Dish 

Fruit 
(2  lessons) 

Stewed  fruit. 

Baked  fruit. 

Apple  sauce. 

Baked  apple. 

Cereal, 

(2  lessons) 

Partly  cooked. 

Raw. 

Use  of  left  over. 

Flaked  hominy  or  rolled  oats. 
Cornmeal. 

Sauted  mush 

Flavor  Vegetables, 

(3  lessons) 

Strong. 

Mild. 

Cabbage  plain  or 

Onions  creamed  or  scalloped. 
Tomatoes,  scalloped. 

Stareh  Vegetable, 

(4  lessons) 

Baked  and  Sauted. 

Boiled  and  creamed  or  mashed. 
Steamed. 

Scalloped. 

Potato. 

Potato. 

Rice. 

Rice  with  Cheese. 

Eggs. 

(3  lessons) 

Effect  heat. 

Thickening  Agent  (Baked). 
Lightening. 

Scrambled. 

Custard. 

Sponge  cake  (may  omit). 

Fish, 

(1  lesson) 

Canned — with  starch  food. 

Salmon  loaf. 

Soup, 

(2  lessons) 

Tomato  Cream  Soup. 

Potato  Cream  Soup. 

Bread, 

(4  lessons) 

Quick. 

Griddle  Cakes — 1  (sour  milk). 
MufiBns — 2. 

Eggless  (Cornmeal). 

Egg  (Barley  flour). 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit. 

Yeast  Breads, 

Sandwiches 

Desserts, 

(2  lessons) 

Starchy. 

Starch  and  milk. 

Cornstarch  Pudding. 

Milk  and  Eggs.  (See  eggs.) 

Batter  Series, 

(1  lesson) 

Gingerbread. 

Cakes  and  Cookies, 

Cheap  cake. 

Cookies,  drop. 

Candy, 

(1  lesson) 

Peanut  Brittle. 

Popcorn  Balls. 

Beverages, 

Cocoa  and  sundries. 

(1  lesson) 

Total,  28  lessons 

There  should  be  some  form  of  a  review  every  six  weeks — also  some  in  Table 
Service. 


137 


Ninth  Grade  Cookery  (Third  Year  Junior  High  School). 


One  unit  to  be  done  either  in  five  periods  a  week  for  one  year  or  three  periods 
a  week  for  two  years. 

Type  Purpose  Dish 


Fruit, 

Canning 

Tomatoes. 

(3  weeks) 

Peaches. 

Berries. 

Fresh — Baked. 

Rhubarb. 

Seasonal  fruit  cooked  in  syrup. 

Dried 

Jelly. 

Jam. 

Stewed  Apricots  or  Prunes  or  Apples 

Relish. 

Scallop  Apple. 

Drying. 

Fruit  Whip. 

Cereals, 

Breakfast  food. 

(1  week) 

A  fine  meal  served  with  fruit. 

Vegetable. 

Rice  or  Sauted  Hominy. 

Dessert. 

Molded  rice  with  fruit. 

Oatmeal  pudding. 

Left  over. 

Rice  or  oatmeal  muflSns. 

Flavor  Vegetables, 

Strong. 

Cabbage  scalloped. 

(2  weeks) 

Carrots  creamed  with  peas. 

Turnips  creamed  and  mashed. 

Mild. 

Greens,  plain. 

Asparagus,  buttered  or  on  toast. 

Peas. 

String  beans  (with  meat). 

Tomatoes  sauted. 

Stuffed  onions. 

Beets  or  sour  sauce. 

Scalloped  corn. 

Starchy  Vegetables, 

Potato. 

(3  weeks) 

Boiled  and  sauted. 

Sweet  potato.* 

Baked  and  mashed. 

Sweet  potato. 

Sauted. 

Parsnip. 

Vegetable. 

Rice — with  flavor  vegetable  (tomato 
or  pepper) 

Croouettes. 

Dessert. 

Rice  pudding  with  milk. 

Left  over. 

In  muffins  or  griddle  cakes. 

Meat  substitute. 

Rice  with  cheese  and  egg  with  creamed 
meat  with  rice  border  or  cooked 
with  small  amount  meat. 

Eggs. 

Effect  heat. 

Poached  on  toast. 

(1  week) 

Soft  boiled. 

Hard  cooked  (a  la  Goldenrod). 

Thickening 

Boiled  custard. 

Lightening. 

Omelet. 

Souffle. 

Fish, 

Fresh  (if  in  locality) 

Sauted  fish. 

(Fish,  Legumes,  Cheese) 

Boiled  and  baked  fish. 

(3  weeks) 

Dried. 

Creamed  codfish,  with  starchy  food. 
Turbin  of  fish  (with  potato). 

Fish  balls  (with  potato). 

Canned. 

Fish  chowder. 

Legumes 

Vegetable. 

Green  lima  beans. 

Meat  substitute. 

Souffle. 

Cream  soup. 

Baked. 

Cheese, 

Meat  substitute. 

Rarebit. 

Fondue. 

Cheese  and  rice  or  macaroni. 

Nuts, 

,  Cottage  cheese. 

Meat  substitute. 

Nut  loaf. 

138 


Type 

Meats  and  Soups, 
(3  weeks)  Meat 


Soup, 


Bread, 

(3  weeks) 


Yeast  Bread, 
(1  week) 

Desserts, 

(3  weeks) 


Cakes  or  Cookies, 
(1  week) 


Candy, 

(1  week) 


Beverages, 


Sandwiches  and  lunch  box. 


Purpose 


Dish 


Tender  cuts. 
Tough  cuts. 


Poultry. 


Vegetable. 


Quick. 


Starch. 

Starch  and  milk. 
Starch  and  fruit. 
Starch  and  eggs,  milk. 
Milk  and  eggs. 

Egg  and  fruit. 

Batter. 


Pies  (one  crust  and  use  wheat  sub¬ 
stitute). 


Gelatine. 


Fruit. 

Frozen  dish. 


Prime  rib  roast. 

Steak  (demonstration). 

Meat  loaf  or  hamburg. 

Swiss  steak. 

Stew. 

Pork  chops. 

Pot  roast. 

Meat  extenders: 

With  rice. 

With  cornmeal  (Tamule  Pie). 

With  potato. 

t 

Vegetable. 

Cream  soups. 

Bean. 

Celery. 

Cream  toast. 

Griddle  cakes. 

(Bread  crumbs,  yeast,  buckwheat) 
Waffles  (corn  flour). 

Spoon  corn  bread. 

Muffins  (3  to  4). 

Eggless  (Barley). 

Egg — corn  flour, 
rolled  oats. 

Loaf  (wheatless  using  sour  milk  or 
sweet  milk,  rolled  oats  and  barley  ) 
Boston  brown  bread. 

Cornmeal. 

Barley. 


See  cereal. 

Rice  pudding. 

Apple  tapioca. 

Tapioca  or  rice  pudding. 

See  eggs. 

Prune  souffle  or  apple  whip. 

Cottage  pudding. 

Short  cake. 

Stewed  pudding. 

Fruit. 

Apple. 

Custard.  ^ 

Lemon.  z' 

Cream  or  chocolate. 

Fruit — lemon. 

With  egg — lemon  snow. 

With  egg,  milk  and  cream — Bavarian 
cream. 

Fresh  in  season — fruit. 

Fruit  ice  or  sherbet. 

Ice  cream. 

Sponge  cake  (cheap). 

Yellow  cake. 

White  cake. 

Spice  cake. 

Chocolate  cake. 

Cookies. 

Marshmallow. 

Taffy. 

Caramel. 

Wartime  Sweets. 

Reception  cocoa. 

Tea. 

Coffee. 


Total  26  weeks. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS. 


The  Problem  of  Industrial  Education . 

During  the  past  ten  years,  much  interest  has  been  manifested  in  vocational 
education,  and  great  advances  have  been  made  in  the  way  of  detailed  working- 
out  of  programs,  organization,  and  procedure. 

At  the  present  time,  there  is  a  much  keener  appreciation  than  ever  before  of 
the  value  of  vocational  education,  as  it  is  seen  that  both  the  present  and  future 
existence  of  this  country  is,  to  a  large  extent,  dependent  upon  its  industrial  workers. 

When  one  considers  the  education  of  future  industrial  workers,  it  is  necessary 
for  him  to  seek  information  concerning: 

1.  The  various  types  of  vocational  intelligence. 

2.  The  time  when  boys  and  girls  may  be  expected  to  give  evidence  of  voca¬ 
tional  intelligence. 

3.  The  discovery  and  fostering  of  natural  aptitudes. 

4.  The  classification  of  industries  on  the  basis  of  the  mental  and  physical 
abilities  required. 

5.  The  kind  of  industries  for  which  vocational  education  may  be  given. 

6.  The  cost  of  the  various  forms  of  vocational  education. 

Among  the  movements  in  education,  which  seem  to  give  great  promise  of 
assistance  in  the  solution  of  these  problems,  is  that  of  the  junior  high  school, 
which,  recognizing  that  large  numbers  of  boys  and  girls  are  destined  to  enter 
industrial  occupations,  assumes  three  obligations  with  reference  to  them: 

1.  To  lay  the  foundations,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  of  that  knowledge  and 
appreciation  of  human  achievement  which  will  enrich  their  present  and  adult 
lives. 

2.  To  assist  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  making  of  a  choice  of  the  life  work 
in  which  they  will  be  most  content,  and  most  efficient. 

3.  To  train  for  citizenship,  by  developing  a  sense  of  social  obligation. 

It  is  of  the  second  of  these  obligations,  which  the  junior  high  school  has  as¬ 
sumed,  that  this  program  will  chiefly  treat,  namely  the  obligation  “To  assist 
the  boys  and  girls  in  the  making  of  a  choice  of  the  life  work  in  which  they  will 
be  most  content,  and  most  efficient.” 

The  industrial  opportunities  of  the  average  community  are  such  that  an 
acquaintance  with  the  industries  will  be  a  promising  form  of  vocational  assistance 
to  be  offered  these  pupils  about  to  enter  gainful  occupations. 

How  the  Problem  May  Be  Attacked. 

.The  problem  may  be  attacked  by  readjusting  the  present  manual  training 
courses  in  such  ways  as  to  give  more  varied  industrial  knowledge  and  industrial 
experience. 

In  the  selection  of  the  industries  for  study  and  investigation,  five  considerations 
which  bear  upon  this  choice  may  be  noted  in  order  of  importance. 

1.  General  importance  and  extent  of  the  industry. 

2.  Local  importance. 

3.  Dependence  upon  a  distinct  and  comparatively  high  type  of  ability. 


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4.  Desirability  as  an  occupation. 

5.  Practicability  of  reproducing  processes  in  school. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  local  industries  may  be  ascertained  from  the 
United  States  Census  Report,  which  shows  for  each  city  and  state,  the  number 
of  persons  employed  in  various  lines  of  work. 

Upon  the  basis  of  the  five  considerations  already  mentioned,  each  of  the 
following  groups  are  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  program,  and  in  the  order  named, 
barring  special  local  conditions. 

1 .  Building  T  rades : 

Carpentry", 

Woodworking, 

Masonry,  stonework,  and  concrete  construction, 

Painting  and  glazing. 

Plumbing  and  pipe-fitting. 

2.  Metal  and  Machine  Trades: 

Structural  ironwork. 

Foundry  work. 

Machine  shop  work, 

Blacksmithing, 

Engineers  and  firemen. 

3.  Machine  Operating  Trades: 

Weaving  of  textiles. 

Clothing  manufacture. 

Shoemaking  and  leather  work. 

Other  metal  work. 

4.  Electrical  work. 

5.  Printing. 

6.  Agriculture. 

7.  Mining  (of  high  rank  numerically,  but  highly  localized). 

Methods  of  Approach  to  the  Study  of  the  Industries. 

The  methods  of  approach  to  the  study  of  the  industries  represented  in  the 
program  should  include  the  following: 

1.  A  knowledge  of  the  facts  relative  to  the  materials  used. 

2.  Sources  and  preparation  of  materials. 

3.  Technical  processes  involved  in  the  manufacturing  of  the  materials  into 
useful  products. 

4.  The  performance  by  the  pupils  of  work  of  interest  to  them,  from  which 
they  will  obtain  a  knowledge  of  industrial  processes. 

5.  A  study  of  the  workers,  including  wages,  hours  of  labor,  apprenticeship, 
the  position  of  the  industry  in  society,  etc. 

Experience  has  shown  that  pupils  derive  great  benefit  from  industrial  work 
which  is  conducted  upon  the  project  basis. 

A  project  has  been  defined  as  “A  job,  for  all  of  which  the  pupil  is  held  respdn- 
sible,  and  in  the  doing  of  which  he  receives  training,  not  only  in  the  manipula¬ 
tion  of  tools  and  machines,  but  in  the  application  of  such  subjects  as  arithmetic, 
drawing,  science  and  English,  in  so  far  as  they  may  be  necessary  to  the  proper 
completion  of  his  task.” 

Among  the  projects  suitable  for  school  work  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 
bookbinding,  repacking  faucets,  scraping  and  finishing  school  room  desks  and 


141 


tables;  setting  glass;  cleaning,  oiling  and  sharpening  lawn  mowers;  repairing 
broken  furniture;  reseating  chairs;  oiling  floors;  painting  woodwork  and  iron¬ 
work;  grading;  building  concrete  walls  and  walks;  the  making  of  school  equip¬ 
ment,  such  as  wooden  cases,  looms,  cupboards,  tables — playground  apparatus,, 
hurdles,  jumping  stands,  etc.;  printing  school  report  cards,  programs,  envelopes, 
garden  inspection  cards,  etc.;  work  in  sheet  metal;  machine  shop  work;  photo¬ 
graphic  work,  and  electrical  work. 

The  projects,  mentioned  above,  are  to  be  considered  as  suggestions  as  to  what 
can  be  done  profitably  by  boys. 

Such  projects  are  to  be  assigned  to  a  pupil,  or  group  of  co-operating  pupils, 
by  the  instructor,  the  pupils  being  permitted,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  to  elect 
the  kind  of  work  which  they  wish  to  do. 

Pupils  may  also  be  permitted  to  undertake  projects  of  their  own,  after  these 
projects  have  been  submitted  to  the  instructor  and  received  his  approval. 

All  pupils  are  expected  to  complete  the  projects  undertaken  by  them. 

Equipment  of  the  School  Shop. 

In  the  work  of  the  various  projects,  hand  tools  of  all  kinds,  lathes,  drilling 
machine,  planer,  grindstone,  gas-engine,  printing  press,  cameras,  forges,  anvils, 
electrical  supplies,  concrete,  benches,  etc.,  will  be  required. 

In  addition,  these  should  be  accessible  for  use,  samples  of  work  obtained  from 
commercial  channels,  technical  books  and  magazines,  trade  papers,  catalogs 
and  advertising  matter  devoted  to  the  arts  and  crafts,  as  well  as  books  and 
magazines  describing  modern  progress  in  the  fields  of  invention,  manufacturing 
and  engineering. 

From  these  models,  books  and  papers,  the  pupils  will  obtain  inspiration, 
suggestions,  and  working  directions.  With  regard  to  the  experience  and  manner 
of  equipping  such  a  shop  and  the  conduct  of  the  work  the  following  is  offered. 

How  Equipment  May  Be  Obtained. 

At  the  present  time,  every’  school  which  has  offered  courses  in  manual  train¬ 
ing  has  an  equipment  of  wood-working  tools,  and  in  some  schools,  metal  working 
and  other  tools  will  be  found. 

Other  equipment,  such  as  tools,  books,  magazines,  machines,  and  supplies, 
can  be  secured  from  the  local  community  by  gift,  loan,  and  purchase. 

Factories,  farms,  offices,  and  homes,  frequently  discard  equipment  which 
can  be  overhauled,  repaired,  and  rendered  serviceable  for  school  use.  Second¬ 
hand  tools,  machines,  books,  and  supplies  of  various  kinds  may  be  purchased. 

As  the  pupils  become  skillful  in  the  use  of  tools  and  machines,  much  of  the 
equipment  may  be  made  and  kept  in  repair  by  them. 

Advantages  Gained  from  a  Good  Equipment. 

Boards  of  Education  should  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  while  second-hand 
tools,  machines,  and  material  may  serve  the  needs  of  the  classes  of  the  junior 
high  school,  a  shop  equipped  with  modern  tools  and  machinery  would  not  only 
serve  such  needs  but  the  needs  of  the  senior  classes  of  the  school  and  of  evening 


142 


and  continuation  school  classes,  thus  giving  to  the  community  large  returns 
upon  the  investment. 

While  it  is  recognized  that  appropriations  of  money  will  be  required  to  sup¬ 
port  this  work,  such  appropriations  need  not  be  greatly  in  excess  of  these  now 
used  for  the  work  in  manual  training. 

Furthermore,  if  it  can  be  shown  that  through  shops  of  this  type,  school  build¬ 
ings  are  kept  in  repair,  a  variety  of  equipment  made  and  repaired,  buildings  and 
rooms  painted,  tools  sharpened,  forms  and  leaflets  printed,  a  part  of  the  cost  at 
least  will  be  offset. 


Qualifications  of  Teachers. 

Any  manual  training  teacher  with  some  encouragement,  special  training,  and 
possessed  of  the  following  qualifications  can  organize  and  conduct  this  work. 

1.  He  should  be  a  “handy  man,”  a  man,  who  can  through  observation,  read¬ 
ing,  and  study  acquire  the  knowledge  and  the  skill  which  will  enable  him  to  do 
a  variety  of  mechanical  and  semi-technical  work. 

2.  He  should  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of  at  least  one  of  the  trades 
which  he  is  to  teach,  and  a  working  knowledge  of  several  of  the  other  trades 
taught  in  the  room.  For  example,  a  skilled  carpenter  might  possess  some  knowl¬ 
edge  of  sheet  metal  work,  forge  work,  and  machine  shop  work. 

3.  He  should  possess  an  ability  to  handle  boys,  and  without  antagonizing 
them,  secure  a  maximum  amount  of  output  on  their  part  with  a  minimum  amount 
of  effort  on  his  part. 

Such  a  man  will  be  a  leader  as  well  as  a  teacher. 

4.  As  the  instruction  will  be  given  to  individuals  or  to  small  groups,  the 
teacher  should  possess  sufficient  organizing  ability  to  enable  him  to  supervise 
the  various  kinds  of  work  which  are  being  done  at  the  same  time,  and  to  assign 
some  of  the  teaching  or  supervisory  w'ork  to  the  more  highly  skilled  boys  in  the 
class. 


Methods  of  Teaching. 

In  the  outline  of  the  methods  to  be  used  for  the  conduct  of  the  work,  let  us 
assume  for  the  purposes  of  our  discussion  a  class  of  30  boys  who  have  met  on  the 
first  day  of  the  school  term  in  a  room  containing  the  following  equipment:  12 
manual  training  benches,  wood-working  tools,  drawing  boards  and  instruments, 
2  wood-turning  lathes,  2  metal  turning  lathes,  2  forges  and  anvils  with  tools, 
a  drilling  machine,  a  grindstone,  a  drill  grinder,  a  power  driven  saw,  a  printing 
press  and  equipment,  tools  for  sheet  metal  work,  place  and  tools  for  concrete 
work,  tools  and  machines  for  bookbinding,  and  tools  and  supplies  for  electrical 
work. 

The  teacher  addresses  the  class,  describing  to  them  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  work  which  may  be  done  in  the  shop  with  a  brief  outline  of  work  which  is 
to  be  done  immediately. 

A  description  of  the  equipment  already  in  the  room  and  the  care  and  precau¬ 
tions  necessary  to  be  observed  in  its  use  should  also  be  given,  and  a  desire  ex¬ 
pressed  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  that  the  boys  help  to  secure  additional 
tools  and  material. 

The  boys  are  to  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  shop  is  to  be  conducted 


143 


like  a  regular  shop,  and  the  systems  of  tool  checks,  and  tool  room,  time  cards, 
job  requisition  cards,  job  record  cards  explained  to  them. 

It  would  be  unwise  at  this  time  to  mention  the  question  of  order  and  dis¬ 
cipline  because  the  boys  in  this  shop  are  to  be  kept  so  busy  that  they  will  have 
no  inclination  or  desire  to  get  into  mischief. 

If  breaches  of  discipline  occur  they  should  be  handled  quietly  but  effectively. 

At  the  close  of  this  class  period  the  boys  should  be  told  that  one  of  the  pur¬ 
poses  of  the  shop  is  to  enable  them  to  make  things  of  interest  to  themselves, 
and  they  are  to  have  ready  for  the  next  lesson  a  description  of  some  article  which 
they  wish  to  make. 

When  the  class  meets  on  the  second  day,  instructions  should  be  given  to  them 
in  the  making  of  mechanical  drawings  which  may  consist  of  copying  on  a  reduced 
scale  large  drawings  of  details  of  a  project  in  woodwork,  previously  made  by 
the  instructor,  and  all  of  the  boys  with  the  exception  of  four  be  set  at  work  mak¬ 
ing  drawings. 

These  four  boys  are  to  receive  instructions  in  the  elements  of  wood  turning, 
the  instructor  explaining  to  them  the  mechanism  of  the  lathes,  and  of  a  good 
textbook  which  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  boys. 

Some  demonstration  work  on  the  part  of  the  instructor,  is  to  be  done  and  the 
boys  given  an  opportunity  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  of  operating 
the  lathe. 

Blue  prints  of  certain  parts  of  the  wood-working  project  which  are  to  be  made 
upon  the  lathe  should  be  furnished  the  boys  and  such  explanations  as  seem  neces¬ 
sary  given  to  them. 

The  boys  are  then  to  be  given  some  waste  wood  and  instructed  to  use  it  for 
practice  purposes  in  the  making  of  parts  assigned  to  them. 

A  group  of  eight  boys  should  next  be  taken  from  those  at  work  in  the  draw¬ 
ing  department  and  given  instructions  in  getting  out  and  preparing  some  of  the 
material  necessary  for  the  woodworking  project. 

The  instructor  should  proceed  in  this  manner  until  all  members  of  the  class 
are  engaged  in  some  form  of  industrial  activity  connected  with  the  making. of 
the  project  in  woodwork  which  might  be  the  making  of  low  tables  or  benches 
for  the  kindergarten  department. 

As  fast  as  a  boy  completes  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  work  to  which  he 
has  been  assigned  he  is  to  be  reassigned  to  another  group  where  as  an  observer 
he  learns  from  the  other  boys  how  the  work  is  to  be  done  and  after  some  prac¬ 
tice,  is  given  a  portion  of  the  work  to  do. 

Those  boys  who  show  particular  skill  in  a  given  operation  can  be  used  as 
assistant  instructors  as  the  needs  may  arise,  thus  enabling  the  teacher  to  devote 
his  attention  to  boys  who  need  his  instruction. 

Cards  are  to  be  used  to  record  the  kind  of  work  upon  which  a  boy  has  been 
engaged  thus  affording  a  means  of  grading  him  and  ensuring  that  he  has  a  variety 
of  experiences  in  industrial  work. 

As  the  boys  become  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  tools,  machines,  and  equip¬ 
ment  of  the  room,  repair  work  and  a  variety  of  projects  may  be  undertaken. 

Books  giving  information  about  the  processes  involved  are  to  be  accessible 
to  the  boys  and  they  are  to  be  left  as  much  as  possible  to  themselves  in  the  working 
out  of  their  problems,  the  teacher  acting  in  the  capacity  of  shop  foreman,  namely, 
as  adviser,  inspector,  and  controller  of  the  outfit. 

It  will  be  recognized  that  there  must  be  a  large  amount  of  flexibility  in  the 
development  and  conduct  of  this  work.  Such  problems,  as  may  arise,  how- 


144 


ever,  have  to  do,  largely  with  matters  of  detail,  and  the  methods  required  for 
their  solution  depend  in  a  large  measure  upon  the  conditions  which  produced 
the  problems. 

Any  person  desiring  further  information  or  assistance  should  write  to  Professor 
Benjamin  T.  Leland,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 

Industrial  Arts  Reference  Books. 


Cockerell  Douglas.  Book-binding  and  the  Care  of  Books — Appleton .  $1.20 

Jack,  G.  T.,  Wood-carving— Appleton .  1.40 

Crawshaw,  F.  D.,  Problems  in  Wood-Turning — Am.  Bk.  Co . . 90 

Sleffel,  C.  C.,  Work  in  Metals — Doubleday,  Page  &  Company .  : . 

Lewis,  M.  H.  &  A.  H.,  Popular  Handbook  for  Cement  and  Concrete  Users — Henley .  2.50 

Anthony,  G.  C.,  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing — Heath .  1.50 

Weber,  W.  E.,  Electrical  Construction  Elementary  Course — Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Ill . 

N 0.  91.  Operation  of  the  Lathe,  Part  1 . . . 

No.  92.  Operation  of  the  Lathe,  Part  2 . 

Thatcher,  Simple  Soldering — Spon  and  Chamberlain . 50 

Bailey,  R.  C.,  The  Complete  Photographer — Doubleday,  Page  &  Co .  3.00 

McClellan,  G.  E.,  Practical  Typography — Manual  Arts  Press .  1.50 

Brownlee,  R.  B.,  Chemistry  of  Common  Things — Allyn .  1,50 

Popular  Mechanics  Company,  Chicago,  Ill.  The  Boy. Mechanic . 

Goss,  W.  F.,  Bench  Work  in  Wood— Ginn . ! .  .70 

King,  C.  A.,  Constructive  Carpentry — Am.  Bk,  Co .  : . . 80 

Gowin  &  Wheatley,  Occupations— Ginn  &  Co . . . 

Manual  Training  and  Vocational  Education — Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Ill .  2.00 

Industrial  Arts  Magazine . 


